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LESSONS C^^^ 



3^' 



GEOGRAPHY, 



INCLUDING 



MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY, 






jfTTSCOVELL, 



Instructor m Gc ography and Natural Science^ 



INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 









TEKRE HAUTE: >^ i<iU,',,r- 

Express Printing CoaiPANY .^nivvC' 

1874. . ^- 

Copyright Secured .% 



Entered Accor/DiNg to Act of Congress, in the Yf,ar 1S74. by 

J. T. S C O V E L L , 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



DEFINITIONS 



Terms used in MathexM:atical Gteography. 



The variovis things around us, of which we gain a knowl- 
edge by our senses, are objects^ or forms of matter. 

These objects all have length, breadth, and thickness, i.e. 
they extend in three directions. 

Since objects have extension, they must have something in 
which to extend. 

This something we call space. 

Space. — Space is the possibility of extension; a necessary 
condition to the existence of matter. 

Solid. — A solid is a limited portion of space having exten- 
sion in three directions. 

Material Solid. — A material solid is a limited portion 
of space filled with riiatter. 

Surface. — A surface is lirhited extension in ttvo directions. 
The boundaries or limits of a solid are surfaces. 

Line. — A line is extension in one direction. 
The boundaries or limits of a surface are lines. 



— 4 — 

Point. — A point is simply location, zvitkout extension in 
any direction. 



If we represent to the eye a point, a line, or a surface, we must use 
an object wiiicli lias extension in three directions, i.e. a material solid. 
In these definitions we deal with space, extension, and locality, not 
with matter. The definitions are the definitions of mathematical or 
/'lire solids, surfaces, lines, and points, as distinguished from tnaleyial 
solids, surfaces, lines, and points. 

From the manner in which they are generated, a line, a siu"- 
face, and a solid mav be defined as follows; 

A line is the path of a point moving in any direction, 

A surface is \.\-\q path of line moving in any direction other 
than that of its extent. 

A solid is the path of a surface moving in any direction 
other than that of its extent. 

Classifying surfaces as to their direction, we have : 

1. Plane Surface. — A plane surface is a surface whose 
direction does not change in any portion of its extent. ' 

2. Curved Surface. — A curved surface is a surface 
whose direction is continually changing in one or both of the 
directions of its extent. 



Plane. — A plane is unlimited, unvarying extension in two 
directions. 

A plane surface may be called a limited portion of a plane. 

Cla.ssifying lines as to their direction, we have: 

I. Straight Lines. — A straight line is a line whose di- 
rection does not chansre. 



\yhen lines are spoken of, straight lines are meant, unless otherwise 
distinguished. 



— 5 — 

2. Curved Lines. — A cui\e(l line is a line wliose direc- 
tion is continually changing. 

Classifying lines as to their relative direction we have: 

I. Parallel Lines. — Parallel lines are lines extending 
in the same direction, at everv point equi-distant from each 
other. 

An Angle. — An angle is the difference in direction of 
two lines, surfaces, or planes, which meet or tend to meet. 




ABC represents an angle. AB and BC are the sides of 
the angle, and B is its vertex. 

2. Perpendicular Lines. — Two lines are perpendicu- 
lar to each other when thev meet, or tend to meet, in such a 
manner as to form equal angles. 

3. Oblique Lines. — Two lines are oblic|ue to each other 
when they meet, or tend to meet, in such a manner as to make 
unequal angles. 

Vertical Lines. — Vertical lines are* lines extending 
through the centre of the earth. 

HoRizoi^TAL Lines. — Horizontal lines are lines which are 
perpendicular to vertical lines. 

Surfaces and planes may be parallel, jDcrpendicular, or oblique 
to each other. 



_6 — 

A Right Angle.— A right angle is the difference in direc- 
tion of two Hnes, surfaces, or planes, which are perpendicular 
to each other. 

■ An Oblique Angle. — An oblique angle is the difference 
in direction of two lines, surfaces, or planes, which are oblique 
to each other. 

An Acute Angle. — An acute angle is an oblique angle 
which is less than a right angle. 

An Obtuse Angle. — An obtuse angle is an oblique angle 
which is greater than a right angle. 

Angles may be classified as follows: 



( Right angles. 

Angles. \ ^. T , \ Acute. 

- ( Oblique angles. | q^^^^^^_ 



A Circle. — A circle is a plane surface bounded by a 
curved line, such that all points in that line are equally dis- 
tant from a point within, called the centre. 

The Circumference of a Circle. — The circumference 
ot a circle is the line which bounds it. 

A Diameter of a Circle. — A diameter of a circle is a 
line passing through its centre and terminating in the circum- 
ference. 

A circle may have an infinite number of diameters. 

A Radius of a Circle. — A radius of a circlets a line ex- 
tending from the centre of a circle to any point in its circum- 
ference. 

A circle may have an infinite number of radii. 



Generation of the Circt.e. — If u line, as A B, 

be revolved about the point A, it will describe a circle. A 
will lepresent the centre of the circle, and AB the radius. 
The line described by B represents the circumference of the 
circle. 

An Arc of a Circumference. — An arc of a circumfer- 
ence is any part of it. 

Divisions of a Circu.viferexce. — A circumference is 
divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, marked thus, .(°). 
A degree into 60 equal parts, called minutes, marked thys, ('). 
A minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds, marked thus, ("). 
Five degrees, twenty-four minutes, and six seconds, are inarked 
thus, (5° 24' 6"). 

Measurement of Angles. — An angle is measured by the 
n umber of degrees of a circumference included between its 
sides. The centre about which the circumference is drawn, 
must be the vertex of the angle. 

Measurement of a Right Angle — A right angle in- 
cludes between its sides, and is measured by, 90° of a circum- 
ference. 

Measurement of Oblique Angles. — x\n acute angle 
includes between its sides, and is measured by, less than 90". 
An obtuse angle includes between its sides, and is measured 
by, more than 90° of a circumference. 

A Sphere. — A sphere is a solid bounded by a curved sur- 
face, such that all points in that surface are equi-distant from a 
point within, called the centre. 

Generation of the Sphere. — If a circle be revolved 
about one of its diameters, it w411 describe a sphere; and the 
circumference of the circle will describe the surface of the 
sphere. 



A diameter of a sphere is a line passing through its' cen- 
tre and terminating at both ends in its surface. A radius of 
a sphere is a line extending from its centre to any point in its 
surface. 

Circles ok a Sphere. — Every section of a sphere made 
by a plane is a circle. If the plane pass through the centre 
of the sphere, the section is a great circle. If it does not pass 
through the centre, the section is a small circle. 

A Zone. — A zone is that part of the surface of a sphere 
included between two parallel circles. 

An Ellipse. — An ellipse is a plane surface bounded by a 
curved line, such that the sum of the distances from any point 
in that line, to two fixed points within is invariable. The 
fixed points are called the foci of the ellipse. 

The diameters of an ellipse are unequal. 

Mechanical Generation of the Ellipse. — Fasten 
two tacks in a board ; take a string three or four times as long 
as the distance between the tacks; tie the ends of the string 
together and throw it over the tacks; draw the string tight 
with a pencil, and move the pencil around the tacks, keeping 
the string tight, and the pencil will trace the boundary of an 
ellipse. 

An Oblate Spheroid. — An oblate spheroid is a solid, in 
form like a sphere flattened at opposite sides. 

Generation of the Oblate Spheroid. — If an ellipse 
be revolved about its shortest diameter it will describe an ob- 
late spheroid. Our earth is an oblate spheroid. 



THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 



The Sun. — The sun is an immense sphere of fluid, molten 
matter, surrounded by an intensely heated atmosphere. 

There are arotmd the sun a large number of dark, cold 
bodies, which receive light and heat from the sun. 

The Planets. — Nine of these dark, cold bodies are much 
larger than the others, and are called Planets. 

The Asteroids. — At present there are known to be 134 
others, much smaller than the planets, which are called 
Asteroids. 

Names in Order from the Sun. — The names of these 
bodies in order from the sun, are Vulcan, Mercury, Venus, 
Earth, Mars, Asteroids, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 

Relative Size. — Among the planets, our earth is fourth 
in order from the sun, and fifth in size; Vulcan, Mercury, 
Mars, and Venus being smaller; Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and 
Jupiter being larger. 

Moons. — Around some of the planets, smaller bodies called 
moons revolve. Earth has one, Jupiter four, Saturn eight 
Uranus six, and Neptune two. 

Form and Motions. — The sun, planets, asteroids, and 
moons, have each a spherical form, and each rotates on an 
axis. 

The planets and asteroids revolve around the sun in elliptical 
orbits. 



Attraction. — Attraction is that force by which all bodies 
tend toward each other, and toward a common centre. 

Attraction varies', i. dii'ectly as the weight or mass of the 
bodies between which it acts; 2. inversely as the square of 
the distance of the bodies between which it acts. 

A Constant Force. — A constant force is one that acts 
continously. Attraction is a constant force. 

An Impulsive Force. — An impulsive force is one which 
acts tor a time, and then ceases to act; as, a ball thrown from 
a gun, moves by an impulsive force. 

Curvilinear Motion. — Curvilinear motion, or motion in 
a curved line, is caused by two unequal constant forces acting' 
in different directions, or by a constant and an impulsive force 
acting in different directions. 

The motion of the planets about the sun is motion in a 
curved line, caused by two forces acting in different directions. 
Attraction is one of these forces. 

Comets. — Comets are light, gaseous, or nebulous bodies, 
which revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits inuch more 
elongated than those of the planets. 

The sun, planets, asteroids, moons, and comets, together con- 
stitute the solar system. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Form of the Earth.— The earth appears to be flat, but 
its real form is that of an obiate spheroid. This has been 
proved by actual measurement, and by experiments with the 
pendulum. 

That the earth is spherical is shown in various ways: 

1, When the earth combes between the sun and the moon 
it casts a shadow on the moon, causing an eclipse. This 
shadow is always circular; and since a sphere is the only body 
that under all circumstances casts a circular shadow, we infer 
that the earth is spherical. 

2, The Sensible Horizon. — The sensible horizon is 
the line where the earth and sky seem to meet. 

When our view is unobstructed, this line is everywhere equi- 
distant from us; it is the circumference of a circle. Our view 
enlarges equally in all directions as we ascend from any point 
on the surface 'of the earth. This could not be true if the 
earth were not spherical in torm. 

Several other proofs are sometimes given; as, the circumnavigation 
of the earth, the appearance of ships leaving and coming into port, the 
elevation and depression of stars as w^e go north or south, etc. 

Size of the Earth. — 

The long diameter is 7925.604 miles. 
The short diameter is 7899.114 miles. 
The long circumference is 24899.022 miles. 
The short circumference is 24857.5 miles. 



12 

Motions. — First, rotation ; second, revolution. 

Rotation. — The earth rotates on its shortest diameter. 

The Axis, — The axis of the earth is the diameter upon 
which it rotates. 

Fixed Directions. — i. The direction /<9W^r</ which the 
earth rotates is East', the direction yro;// which it rotates is 
West. 

2. The direction of the axis is at right angles to the direc- 
tion of motion, and is North and South. 

Proof of Rotation and Direction of Rotation. — II 
the earth rotates, the top of a tower moves faster than its base, 
and a ball dropped from the top would vary from a vertical 
line in the direction of the motion. A ball dropped from a 
tower on the earth varies, in falling, from a vertical line. The 
direction in which it varies is the direction of rotation, and 
is called East,. 

The Poles. — The poles are the ends of the axis; one end 
is the North Pole, the other the South Pole. 

If you face the east, the north pole is at your left, the south 
pole at your right. 

The North Star is almost directly over the north pole, and 
when it can be seen, is frequently used as a point of reference 
in finding the fixed directions. 

The Solar Day. — The average time in which the earth 
makes one I'otation with reference to the sun, is called the 
solar day. 

The day is divided into 24 hours, the hour into 60 minutes, 
the minute into 60 seconds. 



The Sidereal Day, — The time in which the earth makes 
one rotation with reference to some fixed star, is called a side- 
real day. 

It is 33 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds in length. It does 
not vary. 

Day and Night. — As the earth is a spherical body, only 
one-halt of its surface can be lighted b}- tlie sun at one time. 

At any place, that portion of the time of one rotation during 
which it is in the light, is called day ; and the time during 
which it is in darkness is called night. 

The Day Circle. — The line which divides the light from 
the darkness is the circumference of a circle, called the day- 
circle. Owing to the motion of the earth from west to east.^ 
this line seems to move from east to xvest. Owing to the 
motion oi the earth from vjest to east., the sun seems to niove 
from east to %ve%t. 

Location of Places. — To locate places, we must have:' 

I. Fixed directions; 

3. A fixed unit of measurement; 

3. Fixed lines from which to measure. 

The fixed directions. North, South, East, and West, have 
already been determined. 

For the pur2DOse of obtaining fixed lines from which to 
measure, the fixed unit of measurement, and other Hnes to aid 
in locating places, the earth is considered as divided by certain 
circles, each having a fixed relation to the axis. 

The Equator. — The equator is a great circle passing 
through the earth, midway between the poles, and perpendic- 
to the axis. It divides the earth into the Northern and the 
Southern Hemispheres. 

The circumference of the equator is the long circumference 
of the earth; its length and form depend on the size and form 
of the earth. 



—14 — 

This circumference is the fixed line fro m ^vhich to measure 
distance north or south. 

A degree of this circumference is the f^^xed unit of measure- 
ment. 

This degree is 60 geographical, or 6<^.i6^ statute miles in 
length. 

Meridians. — The meridians are half great circles passing 
through the earth from pole to pole, perpendicular to the 
equator. Every place on the earth has its meridian. 

The curved boundary of any meridian may be used as a 
fixed line from which to measure distance cast or zvest. 

By common consent the curved boundary of the meridian 
of Greenwich, near London, w ?/;6'e(^ as the line from which 
to measure distance east or west. 

Some nations use the boundary of the meridian ot^ their capital as a 
fixed line from whicli to measure; as do France, Russia, United States 
etc. 

The boundaries of meridians are represented on maps and 
globes, by lines extending from pole to pole. 

The meridian of Greenwich is called the prime meridian, 
and is marked thus, (o). Meridians corresponding to each de- 
gree of the circumference of the equator, are numbered east 
and west from this meridian, from 1 to 180. The meridian 
180 east, and the meridian 180 v,'est coincide, and, together 
with the prime meridian, form a meridian circle. The 20th 
meridian west and the i6oth meridian east, together form a 
meridian circle which divides the earth into the Ji astern and 
the Western Hemispheres. 

\ 

Parallels. — The parallels are small circles passing 
through the earth parallel to the equator, and perpendicular 
to the axis. - • 

The circumferences of the equator and parallels are repres- 
ented on maps and globes, by lines extending east and v\^est 
perpendicular to the lines which represent the boundaries of 
the meridians. 



-15- 

The equator is sometiines called the prune parullel, and is 
marked thus, (o). Parallels correspondincr to each degree in 
the boundary of a meridian, are numbered from i to 89, north 
and south of the equator. The parallels decrease in size 
toward the poles, so that 90 north and south are not parallels, 
but points, which coincide with the poles. 

Latitude. — Latitude is distance north or south of the 
equator, measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of the cir- 
cumferences of meridian circles. 

t 
As the meridian circles are not exact circles, but ellipses, 
owing to the oblateness of the earth, these degrees vary 
slightly in length. 

The 1st degree N. or S. of the equator is 68. 698 miles. 
The 4=5th degree N. or S. of the equator is 69.046 miles. 
The 89th degree N. or vS. of the equator is 69.396 miles. 

The latitude of a place is its distance north or south of the 
equator, measured in degrees, minutes^ and seconds; as, 

Washington is in N. Lat. 38° 53' 39". 
Rio Janeii'o is in .S. Lat. 22° 54' 42". 

Longitude. — Longitutle is the distance east or -west ot the 
prime meridian, measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of 
the circumferences of the equator and parallels. 

As the parallels decrease in size toward the poles, the de- 
grees of longitude decrease in Icurjlh towarct the poles. 

A degree of longitude on the equator is 6()a6^ miles. 

A degree of longitude on the 45th parallel is 48.982 miles. 

A degree of longitude on the S9th parallel is 1.2 11 miles. 

The longitude of a place is its distance east or west of the 
prime meridian, measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds; as, 

New York is in W . Lou. 74° o' 3". 
Rome is in E. Lon. 12° 27' 14'. 



— i6 — 
PROBLEMS IN LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

Mention two meridians tliat together form a meridian cir- 
cle. 

Note. — Any two meridians that are i8o° apart, together form a me- 
ridian circle. 

What places have no latitude? 

What places have the greatest latitude? , 

What places have no longitude? 

What places have the greatest longitude? 

What is the diflerence between 14° and 40° N. Lat. ? 

What is the diflerence between 25° N. Lat. and 15° S. Lat.? 

What is the difference between iS° E. Lon. and 22° W. 
Lon.? 

Mention three cities on each continent that are in nearly the 
same Longitude as Columbus, Ohio. 

Mention three cities that are in nearly the same Longitude 
as New Orleans. 

What island in about 50° N. Lat. and 125° W. Lon.? 

What island in about 80° N. Lat., and 20° E. Lon.? 

What island in 40° S. Lat., and 173° E. Lon.? 

The mouth of what river is in 35° 40' S. Lat., and 55° 10' 
Lon.? 

What island in 0° Lat., and roo° E. Lon.? 

The mouth of what river in 0° Lat., and 50° W. Lon.? 

What city in 0° Lon., and about 52° N. Lat.? 

What gulf in 0° Lat., and 0° Lon.? 

Give the Latitude and Longitude of the mouth of the 
Columbia River. 



— 17 — 

Give the Latitude and Longitude of Lima, South America. 
Give the Latitude and Longitude of Constantinople. 
Give the Latitude and Longitude of Sydney, Australia. 

The teacher should give numerous problems similar to those ab®ve 
given. 

Revolution. — The earth revolves around the sun in an 
elliptical path or orbit. 

The Ecliptic. — The ecliptic is the plane in which the 
earth's orbit lies. 

The Year. — The year is the time of one revolution of the 
earth around the su'n. It is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 min., and 
48 sec. in length. 

Note. — The earth moves faster in some portions of its orbit than in 
others, which is a reason for the varying leng'-h of the solar days. 

Inclination of the Axis. — The axis of the earth is in- 
clined from a perpendicular to the ech'ptic, at an angle of 33° 37'. 

The axis is at all times inclined in the same direction, hence, 
the earth in its journev around the sun, receives the sun's rays 
perpendicularly on different portions of its surface, at dillerent 
times in the year. 

On the 3oth of March, the sun's rays fall perpendicularly 
on the equator, and since one-half of the earth is lighted at one 
time, the sun's rays must fall obliquely on all places within 
90° of this line; i. e. upon all places between the equator 
and the poles. 

On the 3 1st of June, the axis is inclined toward the sun, 
and the sun's rays fall perpendicularly on a line 33° 37' north 
of the equator, and obliquely on all places within 90° of this 
line; i. e. as far as 33° 27' beyond the N. pole, and within 33° 
37' of the S. pole. 

On the 33d of Septeipber, the sun's rays again fall perpen- 
dicularly upon the equator, and obliquely on places north and 
south of the equator, as on March 3oth. 



— i8 — 

On the 2 1st of December, the axis is inclined from the sun, 
and tlie sun's rays fall perpendicularly on a line 23° 27' south 
of the equator, and obliquely on all places within 90° each 
way from this line, /. e. as far as 23° 27' beyond the S. pole, 
and within 23° 27' of the N. pole. 

The Tropics. — The tropics are parallels; one, called the 
Tropic of Cancer, is 23° 27' north of the equator; the other, 
called the Tropic of Capricorn, is 23° 27' south of the equator.' 
The boundaries of the tropics mark the greatest distance, 
north and south of the equator, at which the sun's rays fall 
perpendicularly upon the earth. 

The Polar Circles. — The polar circles are parallels; 
one, called the Arctic Circle, is 66° 33' north of the equator, 
and 23° 27' from the north pole; the other, called the Antarc- 
tic Circle, is 6^° 33' south of the equator, and 23° 27' from 
the south pole. The boundaries of these circles mark the 
greatest distance to which the sun's rays ever reach beyond, 
or recede from, the poles. 

Zones. — The equator, the tropics, and the polar circles 
divide the earth into belts, or zones, which, owing to their po- 
sition, receive different amounts of heat during the vear. 

Torrid Zones.— That belt between the tropics, 46° 54' 
wide, receives the sun's rays perpendicularly, is much hotter 
than the others, and is called the ton-id region. That part 
north of the equator is the North Torrid Zone., and that part 
south of the equator is the South 7 orrid Zone. 

Temperate Zones, — On those belts lying between the 
tropics and thepolar circles, the siui's rays always fall obliquely, 
hence, they are not as warm as the torrid zones, and are called 
the temperate zones. 

The one between the tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle 
is the North Temperate Zone\ the one between the tropic of 
Capricorn and the Antarctic circle, is the South Temperate 
Zone. 



— 19 — 

Frigid Zones. — On those belts l5'ing between the polar 
circles and the poles, the sun's rays fall very obliquely, and 
that for only half the year; hence they are colder than the 
temperate zones, and are called the frigid zones. The one 
north of the Arctic circle is the North Frigid Zone, the one 
south ol the Antarctic circle is the South Frigid Zone. 

Varying Length of Days and Nights. — When the 
sun's rays fall perpendicularl}' upon the equator, the day circle 
coincides with a meridian circle, and divides the equator, and 
each of the parallels, into equal parts; hence, the days and 
nights are equal in all parts of the earth. 

But when the sun's rays fall perpendicularly on either tropic, 
the day circle divides those parallels between the polar circles, 
into unequal portions; hence, the days and nights are unequal 
in length, except at the equator. 

As the equator is a great circle, and the day circle is prac- 
tically a great circle, they divide each other into equal parts 
at all times; hence, the days and nights at the equator are of 
uniform length dui"ing the year. 

At 41° 34' N. or S. latitude, the longest day is 15 hours, 
and the shortest 9 hours. At 66" 32' N. or S. latitude, the 
longest day is 34 hours. At the poles, the days and nights are 
each six months in length. 

If the teacher will take a circular piece of card-board, cut a hole in 
it so that it will just pass over a globe or ball on which the parallels 
are represented, place it so that it will represent the position of the day 
circle on June 21st, the equal division of the equator, the unequal di- 
vision of the parallels between the polar circles, and the non-division 
of the parallels within the polar circles will be evident, and the whole 
matter of the varying length of day and night in different portions of 
the earth at diflferent times in the year, will be clearly understood. 

Seasons. — On the 21st oi June, the sun's rays fall perpen- 
dicularh'- on the tropic of Cancer; it is then Summer and day, 
ih the North Frigid Zone; Summer, with long days and short 
nights in the North Temperate Zone; wet season, with nearly 
equal days and nights in the North Torrid Zone; dry season, 
with nearly equal days and nights in the South Torrid Zone; 
\Vinter,with short days and long nights in the South Temperate 
Zone; Winter and night in the South Frigid Zone. 



On the 2 1st of December, the sun's rays fall perpendicularly 
on the tropic of Capricorn, and the above conditions are re- 
versed. 

The temperate zones have Spring and Autumn, between 
their Summer and Winter. 

The location of the tropics and polar circles, the varying 

length of days and nights, and the changes of the seasons, 

depend upon the revolution of the earth around the sun, and 
the inclination of the axis. 

The teacher should very carefully illustrate this with a globe, so that 
each pupil may clearly understand the relation of cause and effect as 
stated above. 

In studying the solar system we have learned of the relative 
position, form, size, and motions, of the earth as compared 
with the other members of the system. 

In studying mathematical geography we have learned of 
the actual form, size, and motions of the earth, together with 
the effects of these motions. 

The following diagram presents to the eye an outline of the 
topics of the preceding lessons : 



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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Physical Geography is the study of the land^ water ^ ah', 
and lije of the earth, not only as separate wholes, but as parts 
of one organic whole, in their mutual relations. 

A large niunber of the phenomena met with in physical 
geography, are caused by heat. 

Sources of Heat. — The principal sources of heat are the 
SZ171, co97ibii,stion, and mechanical action. 

Effects of Heat. — Heat, when applied to a body, not 
only warms it, but expands it. When the heat is removed, 
the body cools and contracts. 

Heat Expands Iron. — The blacksmith heats the tire of 
the wheel, and it becomes too large lor the wheel; he pours 
cold water on the heated tire, it cools, contracts, and fits the 
wheel closely. 

Heat Expands Water. — Fill a small flask with water, 
cork it, and through the cork pass a small glass tube; apply 
heat to the flask and the water not only becomes warm, but 
rises in the tube; remove the heat, the water becomes cool 
and sinks in the tube; thus showing that water expands when 
heated, and contracts when cooled. 

Heat Expands Air. — Empty the water from the flask 
used in the last experiment, re-cork it, place the free end of the 
glass tube under water, and apply heat to the flask; the air be- 



— 23 — 

comes warm, and the bubbles formed in the water show that 
the air is being forced out of the tube through the water; re- 
move the heat, the air cools, no more bubbles are formed, but 
the water rises in the tube; thus showing that air expands 
when heated, and contracts when cooled. 

Heat Expands Neaiily all Bodies. — It can be shown 
that heat expands nearly all bodies, whether solid, liquid, or 
gaseous. 

Transfer of Heat. — Heat is transferred from one bod}^ 
to another in four ways; by conduction, convection, radiation, 
and reflection. 

Conduction. — Put one end of a wire in the fire, hold the 
other end in the fingers, and the end in the fingers will soon 
be warmed. The heat is carried by the wire from the fire to 
the fingers. First, the particles of the wire in the fire are 
warmed, these warm those next to them, and so on till those 
between the fingers are warmed without any sensible move- 
ment of the wire. 

The carrying of heat from one body to another ivithoiit 
sensible movement of the carrying bodv, is called conduction. 

Dense bodies, as the metals, silver, copper, iron, etc. are 
good conductors. 

Convection. — If a particle of air or water becomes warmer 
than other particles near it, it expands and is lighter bulk for 
bulk than the neighboring particles; these,- therefore, crowd 
it upward, and in its passage, it warms those particles with 
which it comes in contact. 

The carrying of heat from one body to another, with a 
sensible movement of the carrying body, is called eonvectioJi . 

Liquids and gases are good conveyors of heat. Water and 
air, are, for the most part, warmed by convection. 



— 24 — 

Radiation. — Heat comes to us from the fire or the sun 
when there is no sensible substance to bring it by conduction 
or convection. It conies in straight lines, as is shown by the 
fact that a very small screen will protect us from the heat of 
the fire or the sun. 

The sending of heat from its source without any sensible 
body to carry it is called 7'adiation. 

Bodies sending off heat in this way are called radiators^ 
and such heat is called radiant heat. 

All bodies, however hot or cold, are said to be radiators. 

-The intensity of radiant heat depends upon the degree of 
heat in the source, the distance of the source, and the direct- 
ness with which the rays fall; the more direct the rays, the 
more intense the heat. 

Reflection. — At noon, when the sun is shining, it is 
warmer on the south side of a building, than in an open field. 
When near the building you receive the same number of rays 
from the sun that you do in the open field, and in addition to 
these, some of the rays which fall upon the building are 
thrown back upon you; thus you receive heat from two direc- 
tions. 

The throwing back of heat in this manner is called reflec- 
tion^ and bodies that throw it back are called re/lectors. To 
be a good reflector, a body must have a smooth surface. 

The surfaces of dense bodies, as metals, may be made very 
smooth, hence, metals may be good reflectors. 

Absorption. — If heat falls on a body it may be reflected, 
and not enter the body, or it may enter the body and warm it, 
i. e. it may be absorbed. 

If heat goes into a body, it must go in by conduction, hence 
good conductors, as metals, must be good absorbers; if the 
surface is smooth, the heat will be reflected; if the surface is 
rough, the heat will be absorbed ; /. e. whether a body is a 
good reflector or a good absorber, depends upon the character 
of its surface. 

Good absorbers are o'ood radiators. 



— 25 — 

Diathermic Bodies. — If heat falls on a body, it may pass 
throng-h it and not warm it; as, the heat of the sun will pass 
through the glass and warm the window-sill, warmmg' the 
glass but slightl}^ Bodies which let heat pass through them 
in this manner, are called diathermic bodies. Air, glass, and 
rock-salt are examples of diathermic bodies 

Thermometer. — We can tell by the sense of feeling- that 
some bodies are warmer than others; but if we wish to know 
exactly how much warmer one body is than another, we must 
use a thermometer^ or heat measurer, which is constructed on 
the principle that heat expands, and cold contracts bodies. 

The thermometer in common use, consists of a glass tube 
with a bulb at one end filled with mercury and the vapor of 
mercur}'', and sealed up at the other end. Behind the tube is a 
graduated scale to show how high the mercury stands in the 
tube. When the bulb is placed in a mixture of snow and salt, 
the point at which the surface of the mercury stands is marked 
(o) ; when placed in boiling water the point at which it stands 
is marked 213; the space between these two points is divided 
into 313 equal portions, called degrees, marked thus, (°). 32° 
is the freezing point of water. 

Temperature — Temperature is the amoiuit of heat which 
a body possesses, as measured by the thermometer. 

The Form of a Body Depends on its Temperature. — 
If we apply heat to a solid, as ice, lead, or iron, it at length 
becomes liquid ; and if the heat is continued, the liquid at 
length becomes a gas. If the heat is withdrawn, the gas 
cools, becomes a liquid, and, at length, a solid again. 

Facts have been observed which show that there is within 
the earth a great mass of molten matter. These facts, to- 
gether with others, led philosophers to adopt, in explaining 
the origin of the earth, Its locality, form, size, and motions: 

The Nebular Theory. — This theory supposes that the 
solar system was once a mass of burning gas; as it radiated 
heat, cooled, and contracted, rotary motion was generated or 



— 26 — 

created; as the contraction continued, the motion increased,j 
till some of the outside portions were thrown off, for thej 
same reason that water is thrown off from a rapidly turning! 
grindstone. Nine or ten bodies were thrown off in this way,! 
each rotating on an axis, assuming a spherical torm, and re- 
volving around the central mass. Some of these rotated so 
rapidly that bodies were thrown off from them, having simi- 
lar form and motions. These bodies, at first gaseous, as they 
cooled became molten liquid bodies, and ai'ound some of them 
a solid crust was formed, as in the case of our earth. 

Proofs of the Theory. — The spectroscope shows that 
there are now masses of burning gas in the heavens; that the 
sun is a mass of liquid molten matter, and that the sun con- 
tains many substances found in our earth. 

By means of the telescope we find that the different mem- 
bers of the solar system have the form and motions supposed 
in this theory. These facts, together with others, give us 
good ground for accepting the theory. 

Geological History of the Earth. — According to our 
theory the earth was once a liquid molten mass. As it cooled, 
at length a continuous crust was formed. At first this ci-ust 
was thin and hot, so that all the water, sulphur, and many of 
the acids formed a thick vaporous atmosphere about the earth. 
As the crust continued to cool, the vapors condensed and fell 
upon the crust, forming vast oceans of hot, sulphurous, acid 
water. As the crust cooled and contracted, it pressed upon 
the fluid mass within till some of the weaker portions 
gave way and broad elevations were foi'med, and gi'eat 
quantities of fluid molten matter vs^ere thrown out. Thus the 
contments were formed; not high and mountainous as now, 
but for the most part just below the level of the water, yet 
having the same general outhne as now. These ancient con- 
tinents were mostly composed of granitic rocks. The heavy 
waves of the sea broke down the more elevated portions, and 
spread them over its bed in assorted layers of material for 



-27- 

gneiss, quartz, and slate rocks; other portions, uniting with 
the acids of the water, formed sediments which settled as ma- 
terial for marble and other kinds of rock ; thus purifying 
the water. As these layers and sediments thickened, the 
pressure from above, and the heat from below, changed them 
into the different kinds of rock. Thus the air and water be- 
came fitted for the lower forms of vegetation, such as sea- 
weeds. There was, however, so little life during all this Jirst 
age, that it has been called the azoic age, or age without life. 

Second Age. — Soon the sea became fitted for the lower 
forms of animal life, such as the various kinds of shell fish, 
called mollusks. The sea must have swarmed with this kind 
of life, since the remains of their shells have formed vast beds 
of limestone thousands of feet in thickness. This age is 
called the age of mollusks. 

During this age the Green Mountains were formed, and, 
great cracks opened in the region of Lake Superior, were 
filled with matter from the molten interior, in which are found 
the copper, silver, and iron of that region. 

Third Age. — The mollusks, gathering carbonic acid from 
the air, and lime from the water to form their shells, fitted the 
air and water for still higher types ot life. During this age 
great numbers of gigantic fishes, the first representatives of 
vertebrate animals, appeared in the sea; and on the land, the 
first land-plants and insects made their appearance. This age 
is called the age of fishes. 

The rocks formed during this age were mostly sandstone, 
shale, and limestone. 

Fourth Age. — The forms of life which appeared during 
the third age, continued in this, and a few reptiles appeared; 
but the age was characterized by its rank, luxuriant vegetation. 
The vegetation consisted of the lower forms of plant life, 
such as ferns and rushes, but they were of gigantic size. The 
air was warm, moist, and charged with carbonic acid; large 



— 38 — 

tracts of land were covered with shallow, stagnant water, — L 
conditions favorable to a rank growth of vegetation. The . 
mosses, and leaves of larger plants, preserved from decay by [ 
the water, formed beds 6t peat. The crust settled, and ocean 
currents spread sediments of clay, sand, or limestone over the ', 
peat. The crust rose again, another bed of peat was formed, 
which in turn was covered with sand or clay, and so on, until 
in some instances as many as sixty or seventy alternate layers 
of peat, clay, sand, &c. were formed. The peat, saturated with 
water, and subjected to great heat and pressure, formed bitu- 
minous coal; more heat and pressure changed the bituminous 
coal to anthracite coal. l' 

This age is called the carboniferous^ or coal-bearing age. I 

Toward the close of this age, the Appalachian and Ural ' 
Mountains were formed. The thickness of the sediments 
deposited during this and the preceding ages was from five to 
nuie miles. These sediments seem to have been deposited in 
shallow water, the crust settling as the sediments thickened. 

Fifth Age.— The plants, during the fourth age, gathered 
vast quantities of carbonic acid from the air, the ocean sedi- 
ments buried it away in the earth, thus purifying the air for i 
still higher forms of life. The life of the Jiff k age was cha- I 
racterized by huge, crawling, swimming, flying reptiles. It 
is called the age of reptiles. Birds, and other warm blooded 
animals, and flowering plants also ajopeared during this age; 
the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Alps, and a large part 
of the Himalayas were elevated. These great disturbances 
destroyed all life except a few deep-sea fishes. The charac- 
teristic rocks of this age were the green-sand of New Jersey, 
and the soft, shaly limestone found in Georgia, Texas, and the 
Western Plains. 

The Sixth Age, or age of mammals.— The huge reptiles 
were succeeded by huge mammals; as, the mastodon, mam- 
moth, elephant, Irish elk, gigantic birds, &c., animals resemb- 



— 39 — 

ling those we have now, only much larger. Forests of beech, 
oak, and pine, and other' vegetation nearly the same as now, 
existed. During this age the ^-lacier, nature's icy plow, ground 
down the rocks into soil ; the prairies were formed ; the air 
and the water were pure, and every thing ready for the ad- 
ij vent of man, nature's crowning work. 

I We have seen that a large portion of the crust was depo- 
j sited in horizontal layers at the bottom of the sea; but as the 
I crust wast thrown up into mountains, these layers were bro- 
, ken up, so that now they may be found at almost any angle 
I with the horizon; that vast cracks in the crust, filled with 
matter from above or below, are veins which contain most of 
the useful and precious metals; that the condensation of vapors, 
and the formation of sediments, fitted the air and water for 
the lowest forms of vegetation, which derived their nourish- 
ment from the mineral kingdom; that these not only helped 
to purify the air and water, but became food for higher forms 
of plant life, and for the lower forms ot animal life ; that 
these in turn supplied the conditions for still higher types of 
life; and so on, until the earth was fitted to be the abode of 
man. 

But nature did not pause in her work at the coming of man ; 
beds of coal and layers of rock are still being formed ; the 
crust ot the earth is rising in some places, and settling^ in 
others; old forms of animal and vegatable life are passing 
away, and new ones are appearing; birds, insects, and plants 
exist in greater variety and number than ever before. _ Thus 
patiently, slowly, but surely, nature is day by day working out 
the designs of the Creator, 

We have briefly traced the history of the earth from the 
beginning of its development to the present time, and with 
this general view in our minds we may now enter upon the 
study of the different parts of the earth in detail. 



PARTS OF THE EARTH. 



The earth consists of: 

1. The surjace; 

2. The «/;' outside the surface; 

3. A molten inter lor. 

The Surface. — The surface is that portion of tlie crust 
of the earth which can be examined and made useful to man. 

The Land and Sea. — Tlie surface is not uniform, but 
consists of elevations and depressions; tlie elevations ^ve call 
the land; the depressions filled with water we call the sea. 

The Sea. — The sea occupies about three-fourths of the 
earth's surface. The surface of the sea is uniformly curved, 
and is called the sea-level. This level changes but slightly, 
and is used as a basis from which to measure the elevation of 
the land, and the depth of the sea. 

Oceans. — For convenience of description, the sea is divided 
into five oceans. 

Names and Relative Size of the Oceans. — Dividing- 
the water surface of the earth into one hundred equal parts, 
the Pacific Ocean comprises Jjfty parts, the Atlantic txventy- 
five., the Indian seventeen.^ the Antarctic /zt'e, the Arctic tJiree. 

The Land. — The land is not all in one body, but is distrib- 
uted into a great number of separate masses, varying greatly 
in size. 

Continents. — The three larger masses are called conti- 
nents., named the Western, Eastern, and South-Eastern. 



— si- 
Grand Divisions. — The Western and Eastern continents 
are naturally divided as follows: the Western into North 
America and Sotiih America^ the Eastern into Europe^ 
Asia, and Africa; the South-Eastern, is called Australia. 
These six bodies of land are called grand divisions. 

Relative Size of the Grand Divisions. — Dividing 
the land surface ot the earth into one hundred equal 2)arts, 
Asia comprises thirty-two parts., Africa twenty., North Amer- 
ica sixteen., South America thirteen., Europe seven., and Aus- 
tralia six. 

The teacher should require the pupil to locate tlie grand divisions 
with reference to each other, and with reference to the oceans ; to lo- 
cate the oceans with reference to each other, and with reference to the 
grand divisions, and to locate both with reterence to the hemispheres. 

Islands. — The smaller masses of land are called islands ; 
they comprise about ^^'.y one-hundredths of land. 

Islands are divided into three classes, — continental., oceanic, 
and coral. 

Continental Islands. — Continental islands are those 
which are situated along the borders of the continents, seem- 
ing to be detatched portions of them, and having the same 
general characteristics as the continents along which they lie; 
as, the British Isles, the West Indies, and the East Indies. 

Oceanic Islands. — Oceanic islands are those which are 
situated in mid-ocean; as, the Sandwich Islands, the Cape 
Verde Islands, and the Island of St. Helena. 

Coral Islands. — Coral islands are islands made by the 
coral insect, in warm, shallow water, along the shores of con- 
tinents or of other islands; as, the Laccadive Islands, and 
Florida Reefs, along the shores of continents; the reefs about 
the Molucca Islands, New Guinea, the Sandwich Islands, 
and the Society Islands, are examples of coral islands along 
the borders of other islands. 



— 32 — 
LAND. 



In studying the land massess, we must study their /lorizon- 
tal sJiape^ and their forms of relief. 

Horizontal Shape. — By horizontal shape is meant the 
length and breadth of the mass, without reference to eleva- 
tion. This shape is determined by the coast line, /. e. the line 
where the land and water meet. The coast line is an irregu- 
lar curved line; its irregularity is caused by projections from 
the land and from the water. 

Projections from the land are called cafes and peninsulas 

Capes. — Capes are small, wedge-shaped projections from 
the land; as, Cape Mendocino, Cape St. Roque,Cape Matapan, 
Cape Comorin. A high, rocky cape is called a promontory. 

Peninsulas. — Peninsulas are projections fi'om the land, 
which are larger than capes, and are generally naore nearly 
surrounded by water; as, Florida, Arabia, Italy, &c. 

The Projections from ti-ie Water are called gulfs., 
bays., and seas ; as, the Persian Gulf, Hudson Bay, Mediter- 
ranean Sea, etc. 

The coast lines of North America, Europe, and i\sia are 
very irregular, on account of numerous projections from land 
and sea, especially along the Arctic Ocean ; while the coast 
lines of South America, Africa, and Australia are compara- 
tively regular. About one-fourth of Evu'ope, one-fifth of 
Asia, and one-fourteenth of North America consist of penin- 
sulas; while there are scarcely any peninsulas in South 
America, Africa, and iVustralia. 

Connecting bodies of land and water are called isthmuses, 
and straits. 



— 33 — 

An Isthmus. — An isthmus is a narrow body of land con- 
necting two larger bodies of land; as, the Isthmus of Suez 
and the Isthmus of Panama. 

A Strait. — A strait is a narrow body of water connecting 
two larger bodies of water; as, the Strait of Gibraltar and 
Behring Strait. 

Forms of Relief. — By forms of relief we mean the ele- 
vations of the land above the sea-level. Under forms of re- 
lief are included low plains^ plateaus^ and mountains. 

Low Plains. — Low plains are broad tracts of land which 
have an elevation of less than looo feet above the sea-level; 
as, the low plains of the Mississippi and Amazon Rivers, the 
low plains in the northern part of Europe and Asia, and 
those along the coasts of Africa and Australia, 

The surface of low plains is usually quite level, though 
moderate elevations sometimes occur. 

A low plain is bounded on one side by water, and on the 
other by a plateau. 

Plateau. — A plateau is a broad tract of land .which has 
an elevation of more than looo feet above the sea-level; as, 
the Colorado Plateau, the Plateau of Brazil, and the Plateau 
of Thibet. 

The surface of a plateau is more uneven than that of a low 
plain ; the elevations upon it are more numerous, and ot greater 
bight. Plateaus vary greatly in elevation and extent; in ele- 
vation, from looo to 15000 feet, and in extent, from a few 
miles to many thousands of miles. 

A plateau is bounded by low plains and mountains, or by 
mountains alone. 

Mountains. — Mountains are narrow bodies of land having 
an elevation of more than 2000 feet above the sea level; they 
may be /i'o/a/gfl? mountains ; as Katahdin, Egmont, and Pop- 



— 34- — 

ocatepetl; or a number of mountains may be joined together, 
forming a chain; as, the Bhie Ridge, and the Carpathian 
Mountains; or, a number of chains lying near each other 
forming a system; as, the Appalachian Mountain-System and 
the Alps. 

If the elevations are less than 2000 feet above the sea-level, 
they are called kills. 

The parts of a mountain are the summit., or highest point, 
wdiich may be either broad and flat, or narrow and pointed; 
the base., where the ascent commences; and the slopes., or the 
sides from base to summit ; they vary greatly in steepness. 

In studying a mountain, we must consider its location, ele- 
vation, summit, slopes, and base; as, Pike's Peak is located in 
the western part of the United States; its elevation is about 
14000 feet; the summit is broad and flat; the slope on the east 
is very steep; on the north, west, and south it is more gradual; 
the base, on ihe -east is clearly defined, the mountain rising ab- 
ruptly from the plain, on the other sides it is obscured by 
ranges of hills. 

Volcanoes. — Volcanoes are mountains or hills with basin- 
shaped depressions, or craters, in their tops or sides. Leading 
from the craters toward the centre of the earth, are -passages 
through which are thrown out great masses of molten rock, 
called lava., red-hot stones, ashes, sand, smoke, gases, and in 
some instances great quantities of water. 

Mt. Vesuvius, in' Southern Italy, is one of the most noted 
volcanoes. Its first known eruption was in the year 79 A. D. 
The ashes, lava, etc. thrown from it at this time, buried the 
three cities of Pompeii, Plerculaneum, and Stabiae. Since 
that time many eruptions from Vesuvius have occurred, the 
last in 1872; none, however, so destructive in their efTects as 
the first. 

A large number of volcanoes depend for their form upon 
the character of the material thrown out by them ; if mostly 
lava, the cone will be comparatively flat; if mostly ashes and 
sand, it will be steeper. 



-35 — 

Number and Location. — There are about 650 volcanoes, 
of which about 250 are active ; and the others are inactive. 
Most of the volcanoes are found along the sea shore, and 
a large portion of these, are found in a belt encircling the Pa- 
cific Ocean; including the volcanoes of South America, North 
America, the Aleutian Islands, and the islantls; bordering the 
eastern portions of Asia and Australia. Tin re are also vol- 
canoes in Iceland, the West Indies, the Sandwich Islands, and 
some other localities. 

Earthquakes, — Earthquakes are vibrations or tremblings 
of the earth's crust; sometimes the movement is very slight, 
at others, very violent, causing great destruction. 

The earthquake at Lisbon was one of the most destructive 
on record. The city was wholly destroyed in a very few 
minutes, and more than 60,000 persons perished. The extent 
of surface disturbed by this earthquake, was equal to nearly 
four times the area of Europe. 

Earthquakes occur most frequently in volcanic regions, 
although no region is entirely exempt from them. 

Cause of Volcanoes and Earthquakes. — From the 
location of volcanoes and earthquake regions, these phenom- 
ena are supposed to be caused by steam, formed from water 
coming in contact with the molten interior. 

The summit of a inountain chain is called the ci'est. De- 
pressions in the crest are called passes. The elevations be- 
tween the passes are called peaks. 

In studying a mountain chain we must consider its location, 
elevation, extent, direction, crest, passes, peaks, slopes, etc.; 
as, the Rocky Mountains are situated in the western part of 
North x^merica; they have an elevation of from 9,000 to io,ooo 
feet; they extend about 3,500 miles in a N. W. and S. E. di- 
rection, from the head waters of the Rio Grande River to 
the z\rctic Ocean; the crest is very irregular; there are 
many passes, the most important of which is the South Pass; 
there are also numerous peaks rising to an elevation of from 
12,000 to 14,000 feet; as, the Spanish Peaks, Long's Peak, 
Fremont's Peak, etc. ; the eastern slope is usually move abrupt 
than the Western. 



-36- 



In studying a mouiztain system we must consider its loca- 
tion, the parts of which it is composed, its general elevation, 
and its extent. 

Primary and Secondary Systems. — That mountain 
system of any grand division which has the greatest eleva- 
tion and extent, is called its primary system; as, the Andes, 
Alps, and Himalayas; the others are called secondary sys- 
tems; as, the Appalachian Mountains, the Brazilian Andes, 
the Carpathian Mountains, etc. 

Valleys. — Valleys are the depressions between the 
chains which constitute a mountain system; as, the Shenan- 
doah Valley in Virginia, and the Valley of the Ebro in 
Spain. 

The term valley, is sometimes applied to depressions be- 
tween mountain systems; as, the Mississippi Valley. 

Pupils should be required to locate accurately, all places named in 
these illustrations. 



— 37 — 
THE SEA. 



Bed of the Sea. — The bed of the sea has its forms of re- 
lief, the same as the land surface. 

Depth. — Since the bed of the sea is irregular, the depth 
varies; in some places it is from five to six miles. 

Composition of Sea Water. — In loo parts ot sea water, 
there are, of 

Water 96.2; 

Salt 2.7; 

Magnesia 6; 

Lime .1 ; 

also traces of silver, copper, iron, iodine, etc. The composi- 
tion varies slightly in different parts of the sea, less solid mat- 
ter being found near the mouths of large rivers and tow^ard 
the poles. 

Movements of the Sea. — The sea is subject to three 
movements: w^aves, tides, and currents. 

Waves. — Waves are movements of the sea caused by the 
winds. 

Note. — Winds are currents of air caused by the unequal heating of 
the air in different parts of the earth. The subject of the winds will 
be more fully discussed under the appropriate head. 

In this movement the wave has a forward motion, but the 
'Water has very little motion other than upward and down- 
ward ; as, in shaking a carpet, the waves formed move the 
whole length of the carpet, while the carpet itself moves only 
upward and downward. 

When waves, advancing toward the shore, reach the shal- 
lows, the motion is retarded at the bottom by friction ; and the 
top moving on without support, breaks over in foam upon the 
shore, thus forming what are called breakers. 



-38- 

Thejorce and hi^-ht of waves vary with the force of the 
winds. It has been estimated that the waves sometimes beat 
upon the shore with a force of 5,000 or 6,000 pounds to the 
square foot. 

The crest of a wave is its highest part; the trough is the 
depression between two waves, and is as much below the 
general level, as the crest is above. The hight of the waves, 
from. trough to eldest, has never been known to exceed 35 or 
40 feet. 

The effects of this movement are to modify the coast-line, 
and-to aid in purifying the water. 

Tides. — Tides are waves caused by the attraction of the 
sun and moon. 

It seems easy to see how the attraction of the moon should 
cause a wave on the side toward the moon ; but there is a 
wave of equal hight on the opposite side. How is this ac- 
counted for? 

The weight of a body is the measure of the excess of the 
earth's attraction for it, over the atti-action of all other bodies 
for it. Since attraction varies inversely as the square of the 
distance from the centre of attracting body, the farther a body 
is from the centre of the earth, the less it will weigh. The 
attraction of the moon upon the water, overcomes a portion 
of earth's attraction for it, making the water on the side next 
the moon lighter. The attraction of the moon also has the 
effect to shift the centime of the earth's attraction, from the cen- 
tre of the earth toward the moon. This leaves the water on 
the opposite side farther from the centre of attraction ; hence, 
it is lighter. 

The circum-polar, and other waters at right angles to the 
direction of the moon's attraction, are nearer the centre of the 
earth's attraction, than the waters opposite the moon ; hence, are 
heavier than they. These waters, therefore, by reason of 
their greater weight, foi"ce the lighter waters up toward ^o. 
moon on the one side, ^xx^from the moon on the opposite side; 
thus the opposite tidal waves are accounted for. 

As the moon revolves about the earth once in about 27 
days, these waves make the circuit of the earth in the same 
time. The earth rotates once in 24 hours, in the same direction 



— 39 — 

in which the moon revolves. During- one rotation of the 
earth, the moon moves foi'ward, so that it takes the earth about 
52 minntes to reach the same position with regard to the moon, 
that it had the day before; i.e. the moon rises 53 minutes later 
each day. As the tidal waves follow the moon, any given 
place passes through the crest of both tidal waves once in 24 
hours and 52 minntes, reaching the crest of a given tidal wave 
52 minutes later each day. 

Flood and Ebb Tide. — When a place is passing from 
the trough to the crest of a tidal wave, it is c^W^A flood tide\ 
at that place. 

When passing from the crest to the trough, it is ebb tide. 

When in the crest it is called high water, or htgk tide ; 
when in the trough, it is low water ^ or low tide. 

Thus far we have considered the tide caused by the moon, 
but the sun causes a tide in the same manner as the moon 
does. 

The tide caused by the moon, which is called the lunar 
tide., is much greater than that caused by the sun, which is 
called the solar tide. 

During each revolution of the moon, it is once on the side 
of the earth toward the sun, and once on the side opposite 
the Sim. At these times the crests of the tidal waves formed 
by each, will coincide, and much higher tides will be formed, 
called spring tides. 

Twice during the revolution of the moon, the crests of the 
lunar tidal waves, coincide with the troughs of the solar tidal 
waves, and we have very low tides, called neap tides. 

HiGHT of the Tides. — The solar and lunar tidal waves 
together, are, in mid-ocean about three feet high; but owing 
to the motion of the earth, the water heaps up on the eastern 
side of the continents, rising to the bight of S or 10 feet; and 
in some rivers, as high as 20 or 30 feet; and in the Bay of 
Fundy as high as 75 feet. 

The tides have the same effects as ordinary waves, and in 
some localities form currents. 



— 40 — 

Currents. — Waves and tides are mainly an upward and 
downward movement of the water, but currents are vast bod- 
ies of water having a progressive movement, in definite di- 
rections, with a velocity varying from 3 or 4 miles per hour, 
to less than one mile per day. 

Causes of Currents. — Currents are caused by the une- 
qual heating of the water, by winds, the rotation of the earth , 
tides, and evaporation. 

The waters of the torrid region, becoming heated, expand 
and are lighter, bulk for bulk, than those of the polar regions. 
These colder waters, crowding the warm waters from their 
place, form currents. 

The vast body of water around the south pole, is the main 
supply of ocean currents. 

A current, called the Antarctic Drift Current, flowing from 
the south pole toward the noi"th-east, strikes against the west- 
ern shores of the continents, and is reflected toward the west, 
and under the influence of rotation and the trade winds, be- 
comes a strong western cvuTent, in both the Atlantic and Pa- 
cific Oceans, called the Equatorial Current. 

In the Atlantic Ocean, the equatorial current divides oflf 
Cape St. Roque, one part flowing south along the coast of 
South America, as the Brazilian current, which sends off" a 
branch to the east; called the southern connecthtg current., 
which joins the Antarctic current, thus making the circuit of 
the South Atlantic Ocean. The other portion of the equator- 
ial current passes along the north coast of South America, 
through the Caribbean Sea, into the Gulf of Mexico. From 
the Gulf of Mexico, through the Strait of Florida, as the 
Gulf Stream, it flows north-east along the coast of North 
America as far as latitude 40° N., where it turns more directly 
east, dividing off" the coast of France, one branch flows north- 
east along the west coast of England, into the Arctic Ocean; 
the other branch flows toward the south-east along the coast 
of Europe and Northern Africa, joining the equatorial current, 
thus completing the circuit of the North Atlantic Ocean. 



— 41 — 

In the Pacific Ocean that part of the Antarctic current 
flowing along the western coast of South America, as the 
Peruvian current, near the equator, turns westward as the 
equatorial current. This divides ofl the East India Islands, 
one portion flowing south and south-east, as a connecting cur- 
rent, joins the Antarctic current, thus making the circuit of 
the South Pacific Ocean; the other portion flows north-east 
along the coast of Asia, as the Japan current, sending a 
branch north-east through Behring Strait into the Arctic 
Ocean, and another south-east and south along the coast of 
North America, till it joins the equatorial cuiTcnt, thus mak- 
ing the circuit of the North Pacific Ocean. 

The waters of the Antarctic current, as they leave the 
pole, are very cold, but coming into the equatorial region, 
they are heated, so that the equatorial currents, the Gulf 
Stream, and the Japan current, are warm currents. 

We have currents from the Arctic Ocean also; one from 
the north of Asia, flows south-west along the east coast ot 
Greenland, uniting with one flowing south along the west 
coast of Greenland, forms the Labrador current, which con- 
tinues south along the east coast of North America, and pas- 
ses under the waters of the Gulf Stream between 40° and 50° 
north Latitude. i\.nother Arctic current passes through 
Behring Strait, and around the Aleutian Islands, mingling 
with the Japan current in 50° N. Lat. 

The heated air of the torrid zone, crowded up by the colder air of 
the polar region, gives rise to winds, which, on account of the rotation 
of the earth, come from the north east and south east. These winds 
blow constantly from these directions, and aid in forming the equatorial 
current. They are called the trade winds. During the Summer, the 
southern parts of Asia become very hot ; the cool air of the Indian 
Ocean pressing in crowds up the warm air, causing the Monsoon 
winds from the south-west. In Winter, the southern parts of Africa 
become heated, and north east Monsoon winds occur. 

Currents of the Indian Ocean. — The Antarctic cur- 
rent reflected from the coast of Australia, forms an equatorial 
current, the southern branch of which flows south past Mada- 
gascar, then south-east, joining the Antarctic current, thus 
making the circuit of the southern part of the Indian Ocean. 
The northern branch is broken up for most of the year by the 
Monsoon winds, which cause currents in the direction in which 
they blow 



— 42 — 

Currents caused by Tides. — At Quebec, on the St. 
Lawrence River, when the tide is rising, the current is up 
the river; when the tide is falhng, the current is down the 
river, /. e. the tide causes a current both ways twice every 24 
hours and 52 minutes. The same is true of the mouths ot 
other large rivers, and of narrow channels. 

The tidal currents, and those caused by th«^ Monsoon winds, 
are ^er^W^ca/ currents; the polar, equatorial, and Japan cur- 
cents, and the Gulf Stream are constant currents. 

Sargasso Seas. — In the Southern Hemisphere, the water 
moves from the east toward the west, and Uy the south back 
toward the east again. In the Northern Hemisj^here, the 
water moves from the east toward the west, and by the north 
back toward the east again. Within the five circuits des- 
cribed, are vast areas of quiet water, where are found vast 
quantities of drift material and sea-weed. These areas are 
called Sargasso^ or grassy seas. 

Currents of the Red Sea. — The heat of the torrid 
zone causes some of the water of the Red Sea to take a gase- 
ous form, i. e. a portion of it evaporates^ leaving the rest 
more dense. A current flows in from the Indian Ocean to 
supply the waste by evaporation. The denser water, left by 
evaporation, ginks, and flows out into the ocean as an under 
current. For the same reason, similar currents occur in the 
Mediterranean Sea. 

Effects of Currents. — Currents have the effect to mo- 
dify the coast line, to equalize the temperature of the ocean, 
to modify the temperature of the land, and to aid in commerce. 



— 43 — 
THE AIR. 



The atmosphere or air is an invisible gas surroimding the 
earth. 



f Oxygen, 23.17 parts in 100, by weight. ) p^^.^ ^j^ 

CoMPO- J Nitrogen, 76.S3 parts in 100, by weight. [ 

siTiON. j Water, i part in 100, by weight. ) Dissolved 

[ Carbonic acid, .0006 of a part in 100. ) in the air. 



Pure air is composed of oxygen and Nitrogen only : but 
water, carbonic acid, ammonia, nitric acid, and many other 
substances are alwaj^s found in the air in small, but varying 
quantities. 

Weight of Air. — One hundred cubic inches of air weigh 
31 grains. 

Pressure of Air. — At the level of the sea, the pressure 
of the air is 15 pounds to the square inch; at an elevation 
of 12,600 feet, it is 7^ pounds to the square inch; at 25,200 feet, 
it is about 3^ pounds to the square inch. 

Climate. — Climate is the condition of the air as regards 
temperature, moisture, and purity. 

How Heated. — The air is heated somewhat by heat ra- 
diated or reflected from the surface of the earth, and by heat 
radiated from the sun; but mainly by convection from the 
surface of the earth. 

Since the surface of the earth is the great source of heat for 
the air, it must be colder as we ascend trom the surface. 
Thus, as we go from the equator toward the poles, or from 
the surface upward, the temperature decreases. 



— 44 — 

Mean Annual Temperature. — If we note the tempe- 
rature, in degrees, of each day during the year, for any given 
place, the average of these temperatures will be the mean 
annual temperature for that place. 

The M. A. T. (mean annual temperature) of a place varies 
but little from year to year. 

Isothermal Lines. — Isothermal lines are lines extending 
around the earth from east to west, connecting places of the 
same M. A. T. They do not coincide with the boundaries of 
the pai-allels, on account of the forms of relief and the ocean 
currents. 

Effect of Ocean Currents on the Temperature 
OF THE Land Masses. — On the eastern coast of North 
America, the Arctic currents crowd the isothermal lines to- 
ward the south; on the eastern cost of South America, the 
Brazilian current crowds them toward the south ; on the wes- 
tern coast of South America, the Antarctic current crowds 
them toward the north; on the western coast of North Ame- 
rica, the Japan current crowds them toward the north; thus 
on the east coast of the west continent, the isothermal lines, in 
the N. Hemisphere, are crowded toward the south by cold 
currents, and in the S. Hemisphere by warm currents: on 
the west coast, in the S. Hemisphere, they are crowded north 
by cold currents, and in the N. Hemisphere by warm cur- 
rents, hence, the isothermal lines, in crossing the Western 
Continent, trend from the south-east toward the north-west. 

The isothermal lines, in crossing the other continents, follow 
the same direction, for similar reasons. 

Thus it is seen that the principal reason for the variation of 
the isothermal lines from the boundaries of the parallels, is 
the ocean currents. 

The student should study carefully the map of isothermal lines, on 
pp. 74 and 75 of Guj'ot's Physical Geography, or that of some other 
author. From this he will learn that the greatest M. A. T. is found in 
the neighborhood of the Carribbea7i Sea, the Red Sea, and in the peninsiua 
of Hindoostan ; i. e. the line of greatest heat is from /f> to ioq north of the 
equator. 



— 45 — 

Winds. — Winds are currents of air caused by the unequal 
heating of the air, in different parts of the earth. 

Winds are either constant^ periodical., or variable. 

Constant Winds. — In the region of greatest heat, the 
air is lighter, bulk for bulk, than that either north or south. 
The heavier air crowding up the lighter air, causes winds, 
which, if the earth did not rotate, would come directly from 
the north and from the south. In the rotation of the earth, 
places near the equator move more rapidly than those toward 
the poles; hence, winds having the motion of places toward 
the poles, as they approach the equator, fall behind places 
having the same longitude as those from which they started; 
therefore, they do not come directly from the north and south, 
but from the north-east in the N. Hemisphere, and from the 
south-east in the S. Hemisphere. Since the causes are con- 
stant, the winds are constant. 

Region of Calms. — In the region of greatest heat, the air 
is constantly ascending, and we feel no current; hence, it is 
called the region of calms. 

This region is about 4° in with ; its location varies as the 
sun is north or south of the equator; it is usually found be- 
tween 2° and 12° North Latitude. 

The air, constantly rising from the region of calms, presses 
off toward the poles. If the earth did not rotate, it would 
move directly toward the north and toward the south; but, in 
the rotation of the earth, places near the equator move more 
rapidly than those toward the poles; hence, it reaches the 
higher latitudes as a south-west wind in the N. Hemisphere, 
and as a north-west wind in the S. Hemisphere. The 
causes being constant, these winds are constant. 

Those constant winds from the north-east and from the 
south-east are called lower constant winds; those from the 
south-west and from the north-west are called upper constant 
winds. 



-46- 

Regions of Constant Winds. — The regions of constant 
winds are each about 22° wide, one north and one south of 
the region of calms; the one north, extending to about 33° 
North Latitude; the one south extending to about 23° South 
Latitude. Their location varies as the location of the region 
of calms varies. 

Variable Winds. — Between 30° and 35° North Latitude, 
and between 30° and 25° South Latitude, the upper constant 
winds reach the surface of the earth, and, interfering with the 
lower constant winds, cause variable xvinds. Since the upper 
constant wind has less friction to overcome, it is the stronger; 
hence, from about 32° North Latitude, south-westerly or 
westerly winds prevail; and from about 35° South Latitude, 
north-westerly winds prevail. 

Periodical Winds. — Pei'iodical winds are either monsoon 
nvinds^ or daily land and sea breezes. 

Monsoon Winds. — During the Summer, the southern 
parts of Asia become heated, and the cool air from the Indian 
Ocean crowding up the hot air, gives rise to the south-west 
Monsoon, or season wind, which blows from April to October. 
During Winter the southern parts of Africa become intensely 
heated, and the cool air from the Indian Ocean, crowding up 
the hot air, gives rise to the north-east Monsoon, which blows 
from October to April. 

Monsoon winds from north-west and south-east occur be- 
tween Australia and Asia. 

On the Atlantic coast of Africa, monsoons occur from sea 
to land in Summer, and from land to sea in winter. 

There are also narrow monsoon belts along both coasts of 
the Western Continent between Latitude 30° north and 35° 
south, but none so marked and interesting as those of the In- 
dian Ocean. 



— 47 — 

There are more or less marked belts of season winds along 
the northern and southern limits of the constant winds. On 
the northern limit, during Summer, north-east winds, and 
during Winter south-west winds prevail; on the southern 
limit, during winter, north-west winds, and during .Summer 
south-east winds prevail. 

Land and Sp:a Breezes. — The land is a good absorber of 
heat, the water a good reflector; hence, during the day, the 
land becomes much hotter than the sea, which gives rise to a 
wind froin the sea toward the land, called the sea breeze. The 
land is a better radiator than the water; hence during the night 
it becomes cooler than the water, giving rise to a wind from 
the land toward the sea, called the land breeze. These winds 
are more marked in the torrid region. 

Moisture of the Air. — If water is left in an open vessel, 
it soon dries up, or evaporates, i. e. the heat causes it to assume 
the form of an invisible gas or vapor. The greater the heat, 
the greater the amount of water in an invisible form. The 
air does not sustain this invisible vapor; it is sustained in the 
same manner as that in which the air itself is sustained. If 
the temperature lowers, some of this vapor condenses into a 
visible form, as small drops of water, which are sustained by 
the air; if near the earth, they constitute ^fog; if high in the 
air, they constitute a cloud. If the temperature lowers farther, 
more vapor condenses, the drops become larger, the air cannot 
hold them, and they fall slowly as a mist. If the temperature 
lowers still farther, still more vapor condenses, increasing the 
size of the drops, which fall as rain. When the temperature 
has fallen to 32°, the drops of water freeze, and fall as snow., 
or hail. 

Toward evening, in Summer, bodies on or near the surface of 
the earth radiate heat and become so cold that the invisible 
vapor condenses upon them. This condensed vapor is called 
devj^ and the temperature at which the condensation takes 
place is called the dew-point. 



-48- 

It the radiation continues till the freezing point is reached, 
the dew freezes, and is then called/r<9i-/. 

The greatest amount of rain falls upon the coast of a country 
where the prevailing winds come from the sea. 

Rainless districts occur where the prevailing winds have 
been deprived of their moisture by passing over high moun- 
tains or broad masses of land. 



INLAND WATERS. 



Inland waters may be divided into springs^ lakes^ and 
rivers. 

Springs. — A portion of the water taken up by evaporation, 
condenses and falls upon the land as rain, snow, or hail. A 
portion of this is again evaported; another portion sinks into 
the ci"ust of the earth till it reaches a layer through which it 
cannot pass; here it accumulates, till, by its weight, it breaks 
through to the surface again at a lower level, forming what is 
called a spring. 

Springs are, I. Constant, periodical, and variable. 2. Cold, 
warm, and hot. 3 . Lime, iron, salt, soda, sulphur, oil, &c. 

A Constant Spring is one that flows continually, and suf- 
fers little or no diminution from long continued drovight. 



— 49 — 

A Periodical Spring is one that is intermittent in its 
action, /. e. it flows and ceases to flow at regular intervals, and 
is not much affected by floods or droughts. 

A Variable Spring is one that flows and ceases to flow at 
irregular intervals, being much afliected by floods and droughts. 

A Cold Sj)ring- is one whose temperature is below 60°. 

A Warm Spring is one whose temperature is between 60° 
and 100°. 

A Hot Spring is one whose temperature is above 100°. 
The temperature may reach 213°, v^^hen it is a boiling spring. 
Sometimes hot springs are spouting springs, as the Geysers, ot 
the Yellowstone, and of Iceland, 

A Lime or Calcareous Spring is one which contains large 
quantities of lime in solution. Water having much lime dis- 
solved in it is usually called hard water. 

An Iron or Chalybeate Spring is one having large quan- 
tities of iron in solution. It may be known by the rusty de- 
posits on its borders. 

A Salt or Saline Spring is one whose waters are impreg- 
nated with salt. 

An Alkaline Spring is one whose waters are impregnated 
with soda or potassa, and may be known by its bitter taste, 

A Sulphur Spring is one vs^hose waters are impregnated 
with sulphur. It may be known by its offensive odor, and 
sulphurous deposits on its borders. 

An Oil or Petroleum Spring is one which yields greater or 
less quantities of oil. 

Great numbers of these dift'eient kinds of springs are found in 
nearly all parts of the world. 

Periodical springs and Petroleum springs are less numerous than 
the others. 

Water flowing from springs and from depressions in which 
it has collected during rains, forms brooks; a number of these 



uniung form a creek ; a number of creeks form a i-'iver. A 
river is a large body of water flowing through a narrow de- 
pression in the land. 

In studying a river, we must consider its source, course, 
channel, mouth, etc. 

Source. — The source of a river may be a large spring, or 
a body of water formed by the union of several brooks and 
creeks; or the snows of some mountain chain may be the 
source of a river. 

The brooks, creeks, and small rivers which flow into and 
help form a river are called tribiitaries. 

Course. — The course of a river is the general direction in 
which it flows; as, the Hudson River has a southerly course. 

Channel. — The channel of a ri\'er is the depression through 
which it flows. This is partly natural and partly the work of 
the river itself. The sides of the channel are called the 
banks of the river. As you go down the river, the one on the 
left is the left bank, and the other is the right bank. The 
bottom of the channel is called the bed of the river. If the 
bed is nearly horizontal, the river flows slowly ; if some- 
what inclined, the river flows more rapidly ; if much inclined 
the river flows swiftly, forming rapids ; if at any place the 
bed is vertical, the river flowing over such a place, forms a 
fall or cataract. 

Mouth. — The mouth of a river is that part where it flows 
into some larger body of water. If the mouth is broad and 
deep it is called an estitary. The solid matter brought down 
by the river sometimes forms low islands at its mouth. These 
islands divide the river so that it has many mouths instead of 
one. These islands, together with the divisions of the river, 
constitute what is called, from its fcrm,a delta; as, the delta of 
the Mississippi River. 



_5i — 

System. — A river system consists of a river, tog^ether 
Jl with all its tributaries. 

That portion of land drained by a river system is called a 
I'iver valley 

The ridge of land which separates one river system or 
valley from others is called a ivater shed. A water shed may 
be a mountain chain or only a low swell of land. 

Lakes. — Lakes are broad depressions in the land, filled 
with water. Brooks, creeks, and rivers flowing into a lake are 
called inlets. If a river flows out of a lake it is called an 
outlet. 

Lakes which have inlets and an outlet are fresh water lakes. 
.Such lakes often seem to be mere expansions ot a river; as, 
lakes Erie and Ontario. Lrikes which have inlets but no out- 
let, are salt water lakes; as. Great Salt Lake, Dead Sea, etc. 
The water brought into such lakes by the inlets is removed by- 
evaporation. 

Lakes in mountainous regions are usunlly deeper, in 
proportion to their size, than those on plateaus and low 
plains. 

Composition of the Earth. — There are about sixty- 
three elements which compose the land, air, and water. Eight 
of these make up the greater bulk, the others being found in 
comparatively small quantities. 

OxYGEX. — Oxygen is an invisible gas, without odor or 
taste, which constitutes about ^^5^ by weight of the crust of 
the earth ; about -^-^ of the water, and about -^-^ of the air. 
It is a ver};- active gas, forming combinations with nearly all 
the other elements. 

Silicon. — Silicon is a solid, never found free in nature, but 
always in combination with some of the other elements. It 



occurs most abundantly combined with oxygen, as quartz, flint, 
and sand. It constitutes about ^^-^j^ of tiie crust of the eartli. 

Aluminum. — ^iVluminuin is a hght, tough melal, never 
found pure in nature. It is found most abundantly com- 
bined with oxygen and silicon in the old granite rocks, as 
feldspar ; and it is the principal ingredient of the different 
kinds of clay. It constitutes about j{}q of the earth^s crust. 

Iron. — ^Iron is a tough, whitish metal which is seldom 
found pure in nature. In combination with oxygen and 
other elements it constitutes about -^^-^ of the earth's crust. 

Calcium. — Calcium is a light, yellowisVi metal, always 
found combined with other elements. It forms the basis of 
limestone and gypsum, and is found in other minerals, consti- 
tuting about Y^ of the earth's crust. 

Magnesium. — Magnesium is a silver-white metal, which 
burns readily with a brilliant flame. It always occurs in com- 
bination with other elements, most commonly with oxygen 
and silicon, as talc, steatite, and meerschaum. It is also found 
in some limestone rocks and in sea-water. 

Sodium.— .Sodium is a soft, white metal, never found pure 
in nature. It is best known in its compounds, with oxygen as 
soda, and with chlorine as common salt. 

Potassium. — Potassium is a soft, white metal which takes 
fire when throw^n upon water; always found in combination 
with other elements; and best known in the compounds potassa, 
saltpetre, etc. It is also found in the old granite rocks. Mag- 
nesium, sodium, and potassium each constitute about -j-^-^ of the 
earth's crust. 

Carbon. — Carbon is a solid, found nearly pure in the dia- 
mond. Its most interesting compound is carbonic acid, a 



— 53 — 

union of carbon and oxygen, which is found free in the air, 
and in combination in limestone and other rocks. 

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is a gas without color, taste or odor. 
It is found mixed with/oxygen in the air, of which it consti- 
tutes about Y^o by weight. It makes but few combinations 
with other elements. 

Hydrogen.— Hydrogen is a gas having neither color, 
taste, nor odor. It is the lightest substance known except one. 
It is seldom found free in nature. It constitutes about ^ by 
weight, of water, and is found in many other substances. 

There are other interesting elements, some of which, as 
gold, silver, copper, zinc, etc., will be described in another place. 

Soil. — Portions of the crust composed of these and other 
elements, broken down, pulverized and intermingled by the 
action of heat, frost, air, and water, constitute soil. 

Necessary Condiiions for Plant Life, — The condi- 
tions necessary to plant life are air, water, soil, heat, and sun- 
shine. 

Composition of Plants. — Plants are composed mainly 
of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, which they get 
principally from the air and water. Plants contain also small 
quantities of potassa, soda, silicon, iron, lime, etc., which they 
obtain from the soil. Water not only serves as food for plants, 
but it dissolves the materials of the soil, which otherwise 
could not be appropriated by the plants. 

From these materials, gathered from the air, water, and 
soil, the mysterious principle of plant life, with the aid of 
heat and sunshine, builds up all the various forms of the plant 
or vegetable world. 

Distribution of Plants. — The amount of heat and 
rain-fall diminishes from the equator toward the poles, there- 
fore the amount and character of plant life vary in the 



-54- 

same direction. Plants decrease in size and number of 
kinds from the equator toward the poles. 

Isothermal Zones. — The diminishing- quantity of heat 
and rain-fall, and the varying character of the vegetation 
from the equator tow^ard the poles, gives a basis for the di- 
vision of the earth's surface into seven zones, bounded bv 
isothermal lines, and called isothermal zones. 

The North Frigid Zone. — This zone extends from tlie 
isotherm of 30° to the north pole. Its mean annual temper- 
ature is about 18°; the annual rain-fall about 10 inches; winds 
mostly from the west and north-west, some from the east and 
north-east. In this zone there are vast tracts of land called 
tundras^ which, while well supplied with moistvn'e, owing to 
the extreme cold, produce but a scanty vegetation, such as 
mosses, lichens, ferns, grasses, and small shrubs. This vege- 
tation, decaying, has formed the peatbogs of northern Europe 
and Asia. In the southern parts a few stunted pines, and, 
along the streams, alders and willows are found. 

The North Cold Temperate Zone. — This zone is 
bounded by the isotherms of 40° and 30°. The mean an- 
nual temperature is about 35°; the annual rain-fall is about 
24 inches; the winds mostly from the west, some from the 
east and north-east. In this zone forests of narrow-leaved 
evergreens, as pine and spruce, prevail, with some deciduous 
trees, (those that drop their leaves in Autumn) and many acid 
berries, as the gooseberry cranberry, currant, etc. ; great num- 
bers of grasses, Indian rice. etc. ia some parts the conditions 
are such that large tracts produce only grasses and small 
shrubs. Such tracts are called steppes^ and are very exten- 
sive in North America, as well as in Europe and Asia. 

The North Temperate Zone. — This zone is bounded 
by the isothei-ms of 40° and 60°. The mean annual tem- 
perature is about 50°; the annual rain-fall about 36 inches; 
winds mostly south-west and westerly, a few north-east and 
east. 



—55 — 

In this zone forests of deciduous trees prevail ; as, the oak, 
walnut, maple, birch, elm, etc., with some pine and spruce. 
In this zone there are also broad steppes, and broad tracts, 
called in America prairies, having a deep, rich soil, and pro- 
ducing a rank growth of grasses and herbs. 

The North Warm Temperate Zone. — This zone is 
bounded by the isotherms of 72° and 60°. The mean annual 
temperature is about 66° ; the annual rain-fall about 58 
inches; winds south-west and north-east. In this zone foi"ests 
of broad-leaved evergreens ; as, the laurel, oleander, and palmet- 
to occur along with pine and deciduous trees. Thei'e are some 
steppes in this zone, and in America and Asia broad areas 
almost entirely devoid of vegetation, called deserts. These 
are caused by lack of moisture and great heat, by lack of 
moisture and great cold, or by a lack of soil. 

The Torrid Zone. — The torrid zone is boimded by the 
isotherm of 73°, both north and south of the equator. The 
mean annual temperature is about 78°; the annual rain-fall 
about 85 inches; winds north-east and south-east. In this 
zone dense forests of large trees occur, intertwined with 
parasitic plants, vines, etc. Palms, tree-ferns, coffee, indigo, 
bamboo, spices, etc., make up the characteristic vegetation. 
In this zone there are tracts of land, which during the 
wet season are covered with a rank vegetation of lilies, other 
bulbous plants, and grasses; but during the dry season the stems 
and leaves of these plants are burned up, so that the country 
seems a desert. 

In Northern Africa is the Sahara Desert on which there is 
found no vegetation. 

The South Warm Temperate Zone. — This zone is 
bounded by the isotherms of 73° and 60°. The mean an- 
nual temperature is about 66° ; annual rain-fall about 35 
inches; winds north-Avest and south-east. In this zone we find 
about the same vegetation as in the one north, except in Aus- 
tralia, where are found the eucalipti, grass-tree, zainia, ete. 



-56- 

In this zone there are broad steppes in South America, Af- 
rica, and AiTStraha. 

The South Temperate Zone. — Tiiis zone includes the 
southern portion of South America and some islands, and is 
bounded by the isotherms of 40° and 60°. Vegetation 
rather scanty, and nothing peculiar. 

Conditions Necessary To Animal Life. — The con- 
ditions of animal life are air, water, plants, heat, and sunshine. 
Animals are composed of the same materials that plants are 
composed of, but the materials are a little difierently combined. 
Animals can not assimilate these materials till they have 
been first assimilated by plants. 

Classification of Animals. — Animals are herbiverous^ 
or plant-eating; as, the buffalo, deer, horse, sheep, etc. Or they 
are carnivorous, or flesh-eating; as the lion, wolf, hyena, etc. 

Distribution of Animals. — Animals depend so largely 
upon plants for their existence, that their distribution corres- 
ponds to the distribution of plants; «'. e., animals decrease in 
size and number of kinds from the equator toward the poles. 
The relndter, polar bear, and musk-ox are almost the only 
exceptions on the land, but in the ocean, whales, the largest 
animals known, are found in the polar n^gions. 

Distribution of Animals in the Zones. — We find 
characteristic animals in each zone. In the frigid zone are 
found the polar bear, reindeer, seal, sable, and many other fur 
bearing animals, together with large numbers of swimming 
birds; as, ducks, geese, penguins, etc. 

In the cold temperate zone, the moose, elk, deer, and beaver 
are found ; in the temperate zone, the bear, buffalo, wild boar, 
tiger and panther; in the warm temperate zone, the gazelle, 
camel and leopard. 



-57- 

In the ton-id zone are found, the sloth, ant-eater, alligator, 
monkey, the elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, lion, tiger, 
dromedary, antelope, the baboon, ape, ostrich, and great 
numbers of birds with beautiful plumage. 

In the warm temperate zone south, are found the alpaca, 
cougar, zebra, kangaroo, black swan, lyre-bird, etc. 

Vegetation and Animals of North America. — North 
America consists of an extensive plain with a lofty mountain 
system on the west, and low mountain ranges on the east. 
On the basis of moisture, the frigid, cold temperate, temperate, 
and warm temperate zones of North America, may be divided 
into an eastern and a %vestef'7t division by the 97th meridian. 
The eastern division has plenty of moisture, and each zone has 
its characteristic vegetation, except in the western part of the 
temperate zone Avhere are found the prairies of Ainerica. 
The westerly winds lose so much of their moisture in cross- 
ing the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mts. that the greater part 
of the western division has but little moisture. The charac- 
teristic vegetation is found in the frigid zone; the forests of 
the cold temperate zone are separated by bi'oad steppes, 
while in the temperate and warm temperate zones the vege- 
tation consists of a scanty growth of grasses, and shrubs on 
the plains, with scattering forests of narroM^-leaved evergreens 
on the mountains, and along the streains, the plum, cotton-wood, 
etc. On the narrow Pacific Slope there is abundant rain- 
fall and a dense growth of pine, spruce, cedar, ete. In the 
torrid zone^ along the coast, are found mahogany, logwood, 
ebony, tree-ferfi, etc. ; on' the slopes, the vegetation of the tem- 
perate zone; on the plateau, the vegetation of the cold tem- 
perate zone, with broad steppes and barren tracts. 

Peculiar Vegetation of North Avterica. — Indian rice, red- 
wood, cotton-wood, tulip tree, live-oak, logwood, cactus, etc. 

Peculiar Animals of North America. — Musk-ox, grizzly 
bear, Rocky Mountain sheep, raccoon, opossum, turkey, etc. 



_5S- 

Vegetation and Animals of South America. — The 
greater portion of South America lies in the torrid zone. The 
moist, easterly winds of this zone supply the countrv east of 
the Andgs with an abundant rain-fall, and the vegetation is 
also abundant. In the north are forests of the various kinds 
of palms, satin-wood, rose- wood, etc.; plateaus, which are des- 
erts in the dry season, but covered with a luxuriant vegetation 
during the wet season; and, along the coasts and rivers, vast 
marshes. Along the Amazon river is a broad belt of dense for- 
ests intertwined with gigantic vines and flowering parasitic 
plants; and on the plateau of Brazil are fine forests of useful 
trees. Farther south, the north-westerly winds, losing their 
moisture in crossing the Andes, reach the La Plata Valley as 
dry winds, consequently there is scanty rain-fall and vegetation 
in this region, the vegetation consisting mainly of coarse 
grasses, thistles, and shrubs. In the south is the scanty vege- 
tation of the cold temperate zone. West ot the Andes, in the 
temperate and warm temperate zones, there is plenty of 
moisture and abundant vegetation. In the torrid zone the 
easterly winds have lost their moisture, the country is dry, and 
the vegetation scanty. 

South America is characterized by its forests of large flow- 
ering trees, and by its great number of beautiful birds and 
insects. 

Peculiar Vegetation of South AfJterica. — Brazil-wood, 
green-heart, the cow-tree, satin-wood,pine-apple, vanilla, cay- 
enne pepper, etc. 

Peculiar A7iimals of South Ameriza. — Armadillo, long- 
tailed monkeys, sloth, condor, toucan and many kinds of hum- 
ming-birds. 

Vegetation and Animals of Europe. — Europe lies for 
the most part in the cold temperate, temperate, and warm tem- 
perate zones. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream and 
the south-west winds, these zones are in higher latitudes in 



— 59- 

Europe than in North America ; and for the same reason the 
climate of Europe is warmer and more moist in the western 
than in the eastern part ; the surface of Europe also modifies 
its climate to some extent, the south-west third being moun- 
tainous; the eastern and northern two thirds being a low plain. 
In the cold temperate zone are tundras^ and extensive forests 
of narrow-leaved evergreens ; as, pine, spruce, and larch ; and 
in the western part of the temperate zone, deciduous trees, with 
broad areas of cold temperate vegetation among the mountain*; 
in the eastern parts the forests are separated by broad steppes. 
In the warm temperate zone, the broad-leaved evergreens are 
found; but the hot, parching winds from Africa, and the cold 
winds from the mountains prevent that rank, abundant growth 
of vegetation found in this zone in North America. 

Peculiar Plants of Europe. — The cork-oak, lavender, 
mignonette, etc. 

Peculiar Anijnals of Eztrofe. — The chamois, ibex, 
auroch, etc. 

The Vegetation and Animals of Asia. — Asia lies in 
the frigid, cold temperate, temperate, warm temperate, and 
torrid zones, and has the characteristic vegetation of each. 
Asia has broader plains and plateaus, higher and more exten- 
sive mountain systems, than any other grand division. The 
mountains shut off the moist winds of the Pacific and Indian 
Oceans from a large portion of the interioi", so that large areas 
are barren from lack of rain-fall. The barren plains and 
plateaus, the mountains, the frigid and cold temperate zones, 
comprise more than half the area of Asia, and are covered 
with a scanty vegetation, or have none at all. It is only on 
limited areas bordering the Pacific and Indian Oceans that the 
conditions are favorable to an abundant vegetation. That 
portion of the temperate and warm temperate zones lying 
along the Pacific Ocean consists principally of a low plain, 
which receives plenty of moisture froin the south-west and 
and north-east winds, and produces an abundant and varied 



— 6o — 

vegetation ; as, the tallow-tree, camphor-tree, orange, grape, 
rice, tea, poppy, etc. In the torrid zone, along the Indian Ocean, 
are plains and plateaus, which receive abundance of moist- 
ure from the south-west winds, and produce a rank vegetation; 
as, teak, banyan, bamboo, gutta-percha, tropical fruits, spices, 
medicinal plants, etc.; and in Arabia, coffee, aromatic plants, 
the mimosa, etc. The plateau ot Iran, with its neighboring 
valleys, in the warm temperate zone, is the native place of the 
peach, apricot, almond, cherry, rose, and many other useful 
and interesting plants. 

' Animals. — Central Asia is probably the na«:ive place of the 
horse, ox, sheep, goat, hog, etc.; and in Southern Asia are 
found the camel, ourang-outang, tiger, numerous species of the 
monkey and bat, and many birds of brilliant plumage. Thus 
we see that while so large a portion of Asia is unproductive, it 
still produces a large number of useful and interesting animals 
and plants — in fact, a larger number than any other grand 
division. 

Vegetation and Animals of Australia. — ^Vustralia 
lies wholly in the warm temperate zone, and consists 
mainly of low plains and a low plateau, with a few mountains 
in the south-east, v^^hich rise high enough to condense a little 
moisture, from the winds ; but Australia, as a whole, has les^ 
rain-fall than any other grand division, and is characterized 
by its scanty and peculiar animal and vegetable life. The 
eucalipti and other large flowering trees belonging to the 
myrtle family^ the marsh- oak, a valuable timber tree, with 
long slender branches, and the accacias, (small shrubs with flat- 
tened leaf stalks in the place of leaves,) make up the greater part 
of the vegetation. The leaves of the trees hang with their edges 
upward so that they cast little shade. The epacris, and the 
proteas, (shrubs with dark green foliage and brilliantly colored 
flowers,) zamias, lilies, etc., are common in the south-east. In 
the southwest the grass-tree, and in the north the sandal-wood, 
mangrove, nutmeg, etc., are found ; yet a large portion of the 
jirea of Australia is a barren waste. 



i 



-6i — 

Animals. — The principal animals are the kangaroo, echidna, 
ornithorynchus, black swan, lyre-bird, bird of paradise, and 
other birds of beautiful plumage. 

Vegetation and Animals of Africa. — Africa lies in 
the north warm temperate, torrid, south warm tem- 
perate, and tempei^ate zones. It consists of a broad 
plateau surrounded by mountain chains, with narrow 
coast plains. The mountains deprive the winds of so much of 
their moisture that fully one-half of Africa has but scanty rain- 
fall, and consequently a scanty vegetation, or none at all. On 
the coast the characteristic vegetation of the respective zones 
is found ; in the interior, along the valley of the Nile, 
the deleb, doom, and wine palms; along the northern 
border, and on the oases of the Sahara, the date palm and 
coarse grasses are found; in the equatorial regions there is 
plenty of moisture, and vast areas of grasses, herbs and other 
plants, which make up the dense vegetation of swamps, occur; 
on the upland, the baobab, pandanus, butter-tree, tam- 
arind, etc. On the southern plateaus, thorny shrubs and many 
species of flowering shrubs ; as, the proteas and heaths, also 
euphorbias, geranivuns, etc., and broad areas covered with a 
rank vegetation during the wet season, but having the appear- 
ance of deserts during the dry season. On the whole, the 
vegetation of Africa is scanty and somewhat peculiar, charac- 
terized by its numerous species of palms and flowering shrubs 

The Animals are of the higher orders, and many of them 
are peculiar ; as, the gnu, zebra, giraffe, gorilla, lion, ostrich, 
etc. 



MAjSt. 



HOW DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER ANIMALS. 

Alan, as an animal, stands at tl;ie head of the animal king- 
dom : 

JFirst, by reason of his erect form. 

Second, by reason of the perfection of his hand. 

7 hird, by the freedom of the hand from use in locomotion. 

As regards intelligence, the difference between man and 
other animals, seems to many, to be simply the possession of 
a higher degree of the same kind of intelligence ; but the 
difference is so great, that to many others, man seems to have 
a different kind of intelligence. 

Man, by means of his superior consv.iousness, is enabled to 
see himself as capable of becoming something more than he is: 
the attempt to reach this ideal leads to self-improvement, 
which the animal, unaided, is not capable of. 

But man's faculty for knowing God, and tor knowing r^^^Azf 
from wroi'?_^, separates him entirely from the animal, and makes 
him a religious and a moral being. 

Language. — Language is a medium for conveying ideas 
from one intelligent being to another. Man and other animals 
have a ^zoi/z/ra/ language in "common; but man, by means of 
his superior intelligence, and through organs fitted to express 
such intelligence, is able to invent, and express an arbitrary 
language, through which he can clearly communicate his 
thoughts to his fellow man. 

Langtiage makes history possible, which enables one gen- 
eration to pi'ofit by the successes or failures of former 
generations. 



-63- 

There are a great many languages in use among men, 
which, on the basis ot structure^ may be divided into three 
classes : 

First^ the Monosyllabic languages, which are spoken by 
the people of Eastern Asia. 

Second^ the Agglutinative languages, in which certain 
monosyllables are used together, yet, many of them retaining 
their own individuality. These languages are spoken by the 
natives of America, by many tribes in the north of Europe and 
Asia, and by tribes in Africa and in the islands of the Pacific 
aud Indian Oceans. 

Thirds the Tndectional languages, in wliich the monosyl- 
lables, used together, often lose their identity, giving rise to a 
great nuinber of grammatical forms. 

In the inflectional languages, thought can be expressed more 
fully and clearly than in the others. They are spoken by 
the people of South- Western Asia, of Southern and Western 
Europe, and by their descendants in all parts of the world. 

Of these languages, those spoken by the Europeans and 
their descendants are the most vigorous and important. 



-64- 



RELIGIOK 



Religion is belief in, and the worship of, a superior being ^ 
Wherever man is found, whether igr.orant or intelligent, he 

has a belief in, and some form of worship of, a superior being ; 

hence, fna7t is called a religious being. 

There are a great many forms of religion, differing from 
each other as the intelligence of man differs in various parts of 
the earth. Each of these forms has in it more of good than 
of evil, and is better than no form of religion. 

The more important forms of religion are those of Confu- 
cius and Zoroaster; of Scandinavia, Egypt, Greece and Rome; 
of Brahmanism, Buddhism, Judaism, Mohammedanism, and 
Christianity. 

That form of religion must be best which does the most 
toward developing the good there is in man, and toward 
repressing the evil. It should so completely meet his wants 
that it may become universal. 

Confucianism. — That form ot religion promulgated by 
Confucius about 3,400 years ago, in Eastern Asia, teaches pure 
morals, and a reverence for the deeds ot ancestors, but gives no 
definite ideas of a future life; it does not awaken desires for 
improvement. Its followers are socially, morally, and men- 
tally, where their ancestors were 2,000 years ago. 

The Forms of Zoroaster and Scandinavia. — Those 
forms of religion taught by Zoroaster in Central Asia, and the 
one believed in Scandinavia, consider the world as divided 
between two kingdoms — the one oi Light, the other oi Dark- 
ness; that the former is the source of all good, the latter of all 
evil^ and that the earth is the scene of a constant battle between 
the two kingdoms. 



-65- 

The Egyptian Form of Religion. — The Egyptians 
reverenced God as manifested in nature, believed in trans- 
mio-ration, in the sacredness of the human body, and in the 
sacredness of animals and plants, but did not recognize God as 
separate and distinct from nature. 

The Grecian Form of Religion.— The believers in this 
form of religion, idealized and worshipped the beautiful in na- 
ture, and the genius of man ; but this form lacked unity, hence 
it lacked strength and influence. 

The Roman Form of Religion. — This form of rehgion 
recognized the the divinity of Law and Justice; but its intense 
formality seemed to retard, rather than promote the develop- 
ment of mankind. 

Brahmanism. — Brahmanism is believed by about 80,000,- 
000 of people in Southern Asia, teaches the existence of 
s;pirit as distinct from fnatter, the infinite as distinct from the 
finite; }et it does not explain, but denies the world; it does 
not aid man in practical life as did the Egyptian belief. It 
satisfies the dreamy, indolent peoples of Southern Asia, but 
fails to satisfy mankind as a whole. 

Buddhism. — Buddhism is believed by nearly 300,000,000 
of people in Southern and Eastern Asia. It teaches that man 
is responsible tor his acts, and promises ultimate reward for 
good works and obedience to the truth, but it does not inspire 
faith in a living, present God, nor in a definite immortality. 
The principle of development, is therefore wanting; it res- 
trains the evil in man, but does not foster the good. 

Judaism. — The Jews believe in the God of the Old Testa- 
ment, and in the Old Testament system of worship. Judaism 
teaches the unity of mankind, pure morals, and reverence for 
the past; that God, while everywhere present in nature, is still 
a spirit separate and distinct from nature. It inspires a love 



— 66 — 

for the beautiful and the noble; it recognizes the divine origin 
of law and justice; it teaches a system of rewards and pun- 
ishments for the acts of man. In short, Judaism includes all 
the correct teachnigs of all the other forms of religion, seeming 
more lully to meet the wants of man than any of the others. 
It seemed fitted to become universal, but the extreme national 
pride of the Jews prevented them from miking many prose- 
lytes. About 1S75 years ago, from the teachings of their 
Scriptures, the Jews expected the Messiah to appear; but 
when a person appeared, called Jesus, or Christ, who claimed 
to be the Messiah, the Son of God, the main body of the Jews 
would not accept him. Those who did accept and believe him 
were called Christians, and their form of religion was called 
Christianity. 

Christianity. — Christianit}' includes all the good of Juda- 
ism, and adds to it a clearer comprehension of the brotherhood 
of man, and aims to carry out the injunction of Christ, " Go ye 
into every nation and preach the gospel to every creature.'''' 

Mohammedanism. — About 600 years after Christ, Mo- 
hammed proclaimed a new form of religion, in South-Western 
Asia, accepting the essential truths of Judaism, recognizing the 
prophets of the Jews and Christ as true prophets, but announc- 
ing himself as the gi-eatest prophet of all. As Mohammed in- 
creased in power and influence, he began to degenerate in char- 
acter, and Mohammedanism degenerated also; yet, by the help 
of the sword, it made many converts, and many still believe in 
Mohammedanism. This form of i-eligion does not seem to 
elevate mankind. 

In 1054, contentions arising between the Bishops of Rome 
and Constantinople, a division of Christianity into two branches 
occurred. One, the Greek Catholic, has its head in the Patri- 
arch of Constantinople, and is accepted by a large number of 
people in Eastern Europe and South-Western Asia. They 
deny infallibility to man, do not believe in purgatory, do not 
grant indulgences. The other, the Roman Catholic, having 



-67- 

its head in the Pope of Rome, is accepted by the people of 
South-Western Europe, and by a portion of those in the cen- 
tral part, and b}^ large numbers in all parts of the world. They 
believe in the infallibility of the Pope, do believe in purgatory, 
and do grant indulgences. 

Protestantism. — During the first of the sixteenth century, 
under the leadership of Luther and others, Protestantism com- 
menced as an offshoot from the Roman Catholic Church. 
Protestantism claims to be a purer form of Christianity than 
either Roman or Greek Catholicism. Christianity, in some 
form, is accepted by the more intelligent and powerful peoples 
of the earth. It seems adapted to all sorts and conditions of 
men. Wherever it finds man it-elevates and ennobles him* 
Christianity seems best fitted to be the universal form of re- 
ligion. 

There are many other forms of religion accepted in different 
pai'ts of the earth; but if the Christian idea of God is the true 
one, the universal belief in a supreme being, must be a belief 
in the God of Christianity ; and all the good in the diflerent 
forms of religion must be derived froin the same source. 

The so-called idolatrous or Pagan religions doubtless are 
sdegenerations from purer forms, through the use of material 
objects to aid in gaining an idea of the spiritual, until the. 
piritual is lost and the material alone I'emains. 



— 68 — 



NUMBER AND RACES. 



There are about 1,391,000,000 of people on the earth, of 
which Asia contains 768,000,000; Europe, 300,500,000; North 
and South America, 84,500,000; Africa, 203,000,000; Austra- 
lia and the Islands of the Pacific, and Indian Oceans, 4,500,000. 

Races. — It is generally supposed that all the people of the 
earth are descendants of one family \ although in different 
parts of the earth they vary greatly in form, color, language, 
intelligence, and religion. These variations probably arise from 
climate and other external causes. 

On the basis of one or more of these differences the attempt 
has been made to divide mankind into Races. Several divis- 
ions nave been made; but while no classification yet made is 
entirely satisfactory, still some division seems necessary for con- 
venience. 

A division \r\.to Jive races, on the basis of physical character- 
istics, is most common. 

First, The Indo-European. — The members of this race 
have a white or light complexion, and straight or curled hair 
of various colors. They are found in Southern and South- 
western Asia, in Northei^n Africa, in Central and Southern 
Europe. A large number of their descendants are found in 
America and Australia. 

vSecond, The Mongolian. — The members of this race 
have a yellow complexion, coarse, straight, black hair, and a 
short, broad form. They are found in Eastern and Northern 
Asia, and in the northern parts of Europe and North America. 



-69- 

Third, The American Race. — The members of this race 
have a red complexion, co:irse, straight, black hair, and a tall, 
shapely form. They comprise the greater portion of the 
native inhabitants of America. 

Fourth, The Malay Race. — The members of this 
race have a brown complexion, black, straight or curled hair, 
and are well formed. They are found in South-Eastern Asia 
and on the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 

Fifth, The African Race. — The members of this race 
have a black complexion, closely curled, black hair, and often 
an ungainly form. They are found principally in Africa. 
Some of their descendents are found in Europe and America. 

The Indo-European Race use the inflectional languages; a 
portion of the Mongolian in Eastern Asia uses the monosyl- 
labic languages, the others use the agglutinative languages. 

Of these Races, the Indo-European is the most intelligent 
and powerful, and is the best known. 

On the hash of /an£-ua£-e, this race is divided into two fami- 
ilies; the Semitic and A7'yan^ and perhaps a third, the 
Hamitic. The Hamitic family is now extinct, but has left 
monuments of its existence and intelligence in the ruins of 
Egpyt and Assyria. They were a highly cultured people, 
living in cities, while the Semitic and Aryan were still roving 
tribes, living in tents. They understood architecture, sculp- 
ture, picture-writing, navigation, and something of astronoiny, 
chemistry, and other sciences. 

The Hamitic family seems to have been intimately related 
to the Aryan and Semitic, but whether it was a family from 
which they had their origin, or whether it was a branch with 
them of some still earlier family, is not known. 

The Semitic Fainily has been divided into three branches: 
the Araniceans, Arabians^ and Uebrexvs. The Aramaeans 
occupied Assyria on the breaking up of the Hamitic family. 



-70 — 

The Arabians occupy the peninsula of Arabia and portions 
of Northern Africa. 

The Hebrexvs occupy that part of south-western Asia along 
the Mediterranean ,Sea, and are found scattered through all 
parts of the world. 

Through the Semitic family we have received the higher 
forms of religion, Judaism and Christianity, the alphabet, com- 
merce, and many interesting facts in science. 

The Aryan Family has been divided into seven branches, 
as follows: 



< 

■A 
< 



Ancient Germans. ^ 



Anc'nt Slavonian 



ians -j 



'Germans. 
English. 
Danes. 
Swedes. 
Norwegians. 
Dutch. 

Russians. 
Poles. 



French. 



Germanic Nations 



Slavonic Nations. 



rPren 

Ancient Romans. ■{ c-~ ■ ' \ \ Romanic Nations. 

1 Spaniards. | 

[ Portugese. J 

Ancient Greeks. . Modern Greeks, Greeks. 

r Irish. "I 

I Highland Scots. | 

Ancient Kelts. A Welsh. \- Kelts. 

People of Brit- 

[ tany in France. 



Ancient Persians. Persians. 
Ancient Hindoos. Hindoos. 



Persians. 
Hindoos. 



The Aryan family once occupied the valleys of the Hindoo 
Koosh mountains in central Asia,^sending out colonies at dif- 
ferent times. The Kelts and Slavonians toward the north- 
west; the Germans, Greeks, and Romans toward the west and 
south-west; the Hindoos toward tne south-east, while the Per- 
sians occupy the same region occupied by their ancestors many 
years ago. 



— 71 — 

Wf. know that these different people have the same origin 
from the great number of words which are common to the 
languages of all. The common words also give us a brief 
histoi"}' of the ancient family. Their name signifies that thev 
were an agricultural people; they made roads, built ships, 
erected houses, made cloth, had cattle, horses, sheep, swine, 
dogs, etc., and had a knowledge of most of the useful metals ; 
the family relation was respected, and they had settled forms 
of religion and government. 

The European branciies of this family, including their des- 
cendents, are the most intelligent and powerful people of the 
present time. 

Wherever the Aryans went they found wandering tribes 
which were called luranians, including all people speaking 
agglutinative languages. 

Mankind on the basis of language has been divided into the 
Semitic, Aryan, and Turanian Races, with many subdivisions. 

The characteristics of the different races will be more fully 
discussed in the study of the grand divisions. 



-72— • 
INDUSTRIES. 



At first man's physical wants were supplied by the sponta- 
neous productions of nature. Berries, wild fruits, and roots 
urnished food; leaves, bark, caves, etc. furnished clothing and 
shelter. 

At length different kinds of wild animals and fish were 
found to be useful, giving rise to the industries of hunting 
Sindjisking. As these spontaneous productions began to fail, 
man commenced to aid nature in producing the things he 
needed, giving rise to the industries of agriculttii-e and 
stock raising. Man soon found that the earth contained sub- 
stances which, for some purposes, might be made more useful 
to him than any animal or vegetable substances, hence the 
'rnining industry. 

Preparing for use the materials furnished by nature gave 
rise to maitufacturing . 

Exchanging the products of one locality for those of another 
gave rise to commerce. 

Man has certain rights, and as mankind increased in num-, 
bers, governments became necessary to define these rights 
and to make and execute laws for their protection. 



— 73 — 
SPONTANEOUS PRODUCTIONS. 



These consist of the various kinds of berries ; as, raspberries 
cranberries, blackberries, etc.; xvild fruits, as. plums, cheiries, 
bananas, dates, bread fruit, peaches, apples, apricots, etc.; 
edible roots^ as the sweet potato, yam, manioc, etc.; grains; 
as, the Indian rice, of north America, and the true rice of Asia, 
maize, millet, etc. 

In North America there are nearly one hundred plants 
whose fruit, stems, or roots are used as food by the natives 
The other grand divisions furnish a proportional number. 
This shows that the spontaneous productions of the earth 
would support quite a large population. 

Hunting. — Hunting is the pursuit of wild animals for the 
purpose of catching or killing them. Animals are hunted for 
the food they furnish, or for their skins and tur, or for both 
reasons; sometimes for the purpose of destroying those that 
are noxious, and sometimes for recreation and sport. 

Those animah hunted chiefly for their flesh are birds; as, 
the duck, goose, snipe, plover, woodcock, grouse, quail, pigeon, 
turkey, etc. Those for their skins and fur alone, are the 
beaver, mink, sable, fox, ermine, wolf, etc. Those hunted for 
both their flesh and skins are the buffalo, antelope, seal, rein- 
deer, bear, deer, moose, elk, sheep, squirrel, and many others. 

Animals whose flesh or skins are useful to man are found 
abundantly in all parts of the earth. 

Domestic Animals and Herding. — Other animals were 
tamed and cultivated by man; some useful to him for their 
flesh and skins, some for their strength and intelligence, ■some 
not only furnishing flesh and skins, but aiding him with their 
strength and intelligence as weik 



— 74 — 

These are the domestic animals; as, the horse, ox, sheep, 
hog, camel, elephant, reindeer, and dog; iAso many fowls. 

The cultivation of domestic animals is called herding oj: 
stock-raising. 

The Horse. — The horse, highly prized by man for his 
strength and intelligence, Is a native of Asia. Vast herds of 
wild horses are still found on the dry steppes of Europe and 
Asia. The form ot their lips and teeth allows them to crop 
the scanty herbage of these plains. The horse should be kept 
on dry pasture ground, or in roomy, well lighted, well ventil- 
ated stables, with hay, and oats or corn for food. There are 
many varieties of the horse, arising trom difference in climate, 
care, and character of work performed. The finest varieties 
are found in South-Western Asia, in Europe, and in North 
America. 

The Camel. — The camel seems especially fitted bo serve 
as a beast of burden on the deserts of the torrid, and warm 
temperate zones. The feet seem adapted to the loose, hot 
sand of the desert; the humps of fat on its back often are the 
main supply of food for long journeys, and the structure of 
its stomach enables it to drink water enough at one time to 
last for several days. It has been named the the ship of the 
desert^ and is invaluable to the inhabitants of desert countries. 

The camel and elephant are the principal beasts of burden 
in the torrid zone; the horse in the warm temperate, and tem- 
perate zones, while the dog and reindeer are used for that pur- 
pose in the cold temperate, and frigid zones. The' flesh and 
milk ot the reindeer are valuable as food, and the skins of all 
are more or less useful. 

The Sheep. — The sheep, found mainly in the temperate 
zones, is a native of Asia, and valuable as it fui'nishes materials 
for food and clothing. The sheep delights in dry pasture 
grounds, being adapted to the same climate and soil as the 



— 75 — 

horse. The flesh of the sheep is largely used tor food; and 
from its wool excellent material for clothing is made. The 
finest wools come from Saxony, France, and Spain. The 
wool produced in the United States in 1870 was valued at 
about $40,000,000. 

The Hog. — The hog is a native of Asia, and is chiefly val- 
uable for its flesh, which is extensively used as an article of 
food. The hog is raised in great nnmbers in all parts of Europe 
and the United States. 

Fowls. — The different fowls, such as the turkey, hen, duck 
goose, etc. are valuable mainly for their flesh, although their 
feathers are of some importance, especially those of the goose. 

The Ox. — But the most important of all the domestic ani- 
mals is the ox, a nati'.e of Europe and Asia. The oxis valua- 
ble for its skin, flesh, and milk; the male is also extensivelv 
used as a beast of burden in the temperate zone. 

The ox does not thrive on the scanty herbage of the dry 
plains as does the horse and sheep, but delights in the rank 
vegetation of the moist pasture grounds. In stormy weather 
the ox should be sheltered in •warm, well ventilated stables. 
Hay, corn, turnips, etc. ai^e relished as food by the ox. 

Great attention should be paid to the care and food of the ox, 
for on these depend to a great extent the health of the animal, 
and the healthfulness of its flesh and milk. Europe raises the 
finest varieties of the ox; America the greatest numbers. 

Dairy Products. — Dairy products consist of milk, and 
the butter and cheese made from it. 

Milk is a whitish fluid secreted by the female mammal for 
the support of its young. 



-76- 

' Water, 88.0 

Sugar, 5.0 

In 100 parts of milk there are, of -^ Oil, 3.5 

j Caseine, 3.0 

[Salts, .5 

The quantity of these ingredients varies in the milk of dif- 
ferent animals, and in the milk of the same animal under dif- 
ferent conditions, as to health, food, etc. 

The caseitie of the milk, coagulated by I'ennet (an j^cid taken 
from the calf's stomach,) salted, drained, and pressed is cheese. 

The oil^ separated from the other ingredients, by violent 
agitation, and salted, is butter. These are important and ex- 
tensive products throughout the north temperate zone. The 
dairy products ot the United vStates for 18*70, w^ere valued at- 
about $180,000,000. 



— 77- 



FISHING. 



The catching of fish is a very important industrv. The 
following" are the most important fish caught: 

Herring. — The herring ranks first in importance. I( is 
from six to fifteen inches long, and lives in cold salt water, 
coming into the shallow water to spawn. It is quite prolific 
so that while immense quantities are caught, the number doe? 
not decrease from year to year. The herring fisheries are 
carried on, on both shores of the Atlantic Ocean, giving em- 
ployment to more than 300,000 persons. 

The Cod-fish. — The cod rivals the herring in importance. 
It lives in cold salt water, sometimes attaining a weight of 
thirty or forty pounds. It is found on rocky or sandy bottoms 
at a depth of from fifteen to twenty-five fathoms. The cod 
occurs most abundantly on the coast of Newfoundland, though 
it is found on both coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific. 

The Mackerel. — -The mackerel is also found in cold salt 
water, and is abundant on both shores of the Atlantic Ocean. 
It is from twelve to twenty inches long, and weighs from two 
to three pounds. It comes into the shallow coast waters to 
spawn. 

The Shad. — The shad is a native of cool salt water, and 
goes up the rivers to spawn. It attains a length of two or 
three feet, and weighs from four to twelve pounds. It is 
foimd in the coast waters, and m the rivers flowing in to the 
Atlantic Ocean. 



-78- 

The Sardine. — The sardine belongs to the herring tamilv-, 
and is found most abundantly in the warm waters of the 
Mediterranean Sea. Sardines are cleaned, dried, and packed 
in oil for commerce. 

The Salmon. — The salmon is a native of cold salt water, 
and goes up the rivers to spawn. It attains a weight of from 
tweny to thirty pounds. It is caught from the rivers flowing 
into the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; but most abundantly 
from, the Columbia River, in the western part ot the United 
States. 

The White-fish. — The white-fish, foxmd prmcipally in 
the waters of the St. Lawrence River svstem, is very highly 
esteemed as an article of food. It belongs to the salmon fam- 
ily. 

The Trout. — The diflTerent species of trout also belong to 
the salmon family. Those found in the Great Lakes some- 
times attain a weight of from twenty-five to thirty pounds. 
The little speckled trout of the mountain brooks is highly 
esteemed as an article of food. 

The Sturgeon. — The sturgeon is found in both salt and 
fresh water; those living in salt vvater go up the rivers to 
spawn. There are a great many species of the sturgeon found 
in the lakes, rivers, and coast waters of North America, Eu- 
rope, and Asia. In the Caspian Sea it is especially abundant, 
where it sometimes has a length of twenty-five or thirty 
feet, and a weight of 2,000 or 3,000 pounds. It has no scales, 
but is covered with a great number of bony plates. 

The pickerel, sucker, mullet, bass, cat-fish, and many others 
are found in fresh water. The pilchard, tuny, anchovy, hake, 
haddock, halibut, etc., are important fish from the salt water. 
Fish are cleaned, salted, and dried or packed for market. 



— 79 — 

The Whai.e. — The whale is not a fish, hut the pursuit of 
the whale is called ivhale Jishing. The whale is not caught 
for food, but for the oil and bone which it furnishes. It is 
found most abundantly in the polar regions^ and is the larsjest 
animal known, often attaining a length of seventy or eighty 
feet. The whale has no teeth, hut bones are arranged along 
the sides of his mouth so as to form a sieve., by which he 
strains from the water the little animals which constitute his 
food. 

The catching of lobsters, oysters, clams, mussels and other 
mollusks or shell-fish, comes under the head oi fishing. 

Lobsters and Oysters are taken in great quantities on 
both coasts of the Atlantic, and and some are taken from the 
Pacific. Crabs, mussels, shrimps, etc., are cavight and used 
more extensively in Europe than in America. 

The importance of tho. fishing industry is shown bv the fact 
that no less than half a million persons are actively engaged 
in it. 



8o- 



AGRICULTURE. 



Agriculture is the cultivation of the soil for the purpose of 
raising- useful plants. Plants are useful as they furnish food 
for man and animals, or as they furnish matei'ials for man's 
clothing or shelter. Plants are useful for tood, as they fur- 
nish stai'ch^ ghtten, sugar ^ or oil. 

Kinds of Soil. — There are several kinds of soil; as, allu- 
vial soil., composed of sediment from running water; heavy 
clay soil., composed of clav, 75 to 90, sand, 10 to 25 parts; 
loamy soil., composed of clay, 40 to 60, sand, 40 to 60 parts; 
light sandy soil., composed, of clay, etc., 10 to 35, sand, 75 to 
90 parts. 

Sand is sometimes mixed with clay soils so that they may 
be more easily worked, and clay mixed with sandy soils to 
make them more tenacious. 

Fertilizers. — Soil often lacks the materials which the 
plant needs; these may be supplied by manures or fertilizers 
The following are the most common fertilizers: 

Animal Excrements. — Animal excrements are used 
everyVv'here as manures. Guano, the excrement ot fish-eating 
birds, is the most valuable. These fui'nish nitrogen, potassa, 
lime, etc., to to the growing plant. 

Common lime., pulverized, burned bones., shell and bog lim.e 
from swamps and marshes are used principally lor the lime 
they furnish the plant. 

Muck or peat., (partially decayed vegetation,) ashes of plants 
■saltpetre., (often found in caves,) unpurified sea-salt, and 
many other substances are used as fertilizers. 



The following are the most important of the cultivated 
plants : 

Grass and Hay. — There are about 4000 kinds of grasses, 
which together constitnte the Grass Family^ which is a very- 
important family to man. In any climate from the equator 
to the polar snows, in any soil from the water covered marsh 
to the dry sandy plateau, some member of this family may be 
found. 

Nearly all the varieties are relished as food by some of the 
plant-eating animals. The stems and leaves of grasses cut 
and dried as food for animals, are called hay. Those grasses 
commonly cultivated for hay, grow best on a clayey soil, in a 
moist, cool temperate climate. Most of the hay is cut be- 
tween the isotherms of 50° and 40° noith. The United 
States in 1870 produced 27,000,000 tons of hay, which at $12 
per ton, amounts to $324,000,000. During a portion of the 
year, the cattle, horses, sheep, etc. live on wild or cultivated 
grasses, hence a portion of their value should be added to the 
value of the hay crop. .One-eighth ofthe value of all live 
stock and slaughtered animals, ($240,000,000,) and two-thirds 
ofthe value of dairy products, and wool, ($140,000,000,) added 
to the value ofthe hay crop, ($324,000,000,) makes a total of 
$704,000,000, as the value of the grass crop of the United 
States in 1870. 

Rice. — Rice is a memiier of \hQ grass family^ and is a na- 
tive of Southern Asia. It is a water plant, growing best in allu- 
vial, clayey soil, and in a hot, moist climate. For the greater 
part of the growing season the ground shonid be covered 
with fresh water. It is cultivated extensively in Southern and 
Eastern Asia, and to some extent in the other grand divisions. 
It grows only in the warm tem aerate ar.d torrid zones. 

[ Starch, 85.0 

I Water, 5.0 

In 100 parts of rice there are, of -<[ Gluten, etc., 3.6 

Veg. Fibre, 4.8 
Ash, oil, etc., 1.6 



— 82 — 

Rice is perhaps the most useful grain, as it furnishes the 
principal food for nearly one-third of the human family. 

Wheat. — Wheat is also a member of the grass family. It 
is supposed to be native in Central Asia, and its cultivation is 
older than history. 

Wheat will grow in a wide I'ange of climate, and in a great 
variety of soils; but does best in a well-drained clay soil, and 
in a cool temperate climate, not too moist. It is cultivated 
most extensively between isotherms 55° and 45°. 

[ Starch, 46.0 

I Gluten, etc., 19.0 

T 4- r 1 i- i.1 c\ Water, i c.o 

in 100 parts of wheat there are, o\< -^j ^., ■' 

^ ' I V eg. nibre, 13,0 

j Sugar, oil, & ash, 4.7 

[ Albumen & gum, 2.3 

Gluten is called muscle forming food. Wheat is very use- 
ful for food, and it is extensively raised. In 1870 the United 
States produced 287,000,000 of bushels. The United States, 
and the southern portion of Russia in Europe are the only 
countries that raise much wheat to export. 

Enemies of Wheat. — Rust and smut, (vegetable growths) 
and the Hessian fly, wheat fly, corn moth, wire worm, etc, are 
the principal enemies of wheat. 

Barley. — Barley is a member of the grass family., and 
probably a native of Central Asia. It has a wider range of 
climate than any other grain, but does best in a cool, dry 
climate, between isotherms 40° and 46°. 

Soil, should be loamy or clayey, mingled with muck, or 
some animal excrement. 

It is cultivated most extensively in Europe, in the northern 
parts of the United States, and in Canada. It is used as food 



for man and animals, and for beer. In 1870 the United 
States produced 30,000,000 of bushels. 

f Starch, 54.8 

Water, 14.2 

T ^ r T-) 1 ti L Veof. fibre, 11.4 

In 100 parts of Barley there are, ot< ^^, "Z ' ^ 

^ - ' ] (jluten, etc., i i.o 

I Gum & sugar, 3.4 

[Fat and ash, 5.2 

Barley is said to be good brain food^ on account of the 
phosphate of lime in the ash. 

Rye. — Rye is also a member of the grass family^ and 
probably a native of Central Asia. Rye does best in a sandy 
soil, and in the same temperature as that adapted to wheat, 
but will ripen in a climate too cold for wheat. Rye is a very 
important crop in Eastern Europe, as it will grow on very 
poor soil. It is used largely as food for man and animals 
and from it large quantities of whisky are manufactured. 

[ Starch, 57.0 

I Gluten, etc., ii.o 

In 100 part's of Rye there are, of^ Water, 16.0 

I Gum, sugar, & oil, S.o 
[ Ash and fibre, 8.0 

Oats. — Oats also belong to the ^ra^.y /a?«//y. They need a 
cool, moist climate, and a strong clay soil, with some vegeta- 
ble mould or muck. They are used as food for man in Scot- 
land, where the best quality is raised ; but the grain and straw 
are both mainly used as food for horses. They grow well in 
the region in whicn wheat is found, but will thrive in a little 
colder climate. 

f Starch, 53. to 65.2 

j Gluten, etc., 1 1.5 

I Y&X 6 -^ 

In 100 parts of oats there are, of-^ /^ ' c '"^ 

'■ I Gum & sugar, 2.5 

J Water, 13.3 

[ Ash and fibre, 1.2 



-84- 

In 1870 the United States produced 2S2 millions of bushels 
of oals. 



Maize or Indian Corn. — Maize is a kind of grass, a na- 
tive of the warmer parts of Amerii-a. There are a great many 
varieties arising from difference of climate and soil. It does 
best in a rich, stimulating soil, with hot sunshine and frequent 
showers. The most and best corn is grown between the iso- 
therms of 45° and 60° north. The stalks are used as fodder 
for cattle, and the grain is used extensively as food for man 
and domestic animals. 

f Starch, 80.0 

I Fat *7 o 

In 100 parts of corn there are, of ^ ^-^i ' ^ /' 

^ ' I G-luten, etc., 6.0 

( Ash, water,etc., 7.0 

It rivals wheat and rice in importance. 

In 1870 the United States produced 761 millions of bushels 
of corn. 

Sugar Cane. — Sugar cane is also a kind of grass, a native 
of the East Indies, but now cultivated in each of the grand 
divisions. It does best on rich, moist, alluvial soils, in a hot, 
moist climate. 

Sugar cane is usually propagated by cuttings; the top joints 
are cut off and planted for this purpose. On good soils it 
sometimes attains a height of 20 feet.. It is ready for harvest- 
ing in from ten to twenty months after planting. It is culti- 
vated between the isotherms of 65° north and south of the 
equator. Sorghum, a variety of sugar cane, Avill do well, in 
rich soils, as far north as the isotherm of 45°. 

The greater portion of the sugar of commerce is made from 
the juice of the sugar cane. East India, the West India 
Islands, and the United vStates produce most of the cane sugar. 
In 1870, the United States produced 87,000 hhds. 



-8s- 

In Europe sugar is made extensively frcm the sugar beet, 
and in America large quantities are made from the sugar 
maple. 

Buckwheat. — Buckwheat is a native ot Central Asia. It 
will ripen as far north as isotherm 38°, and will do well on verv 
poor soils. It comes to maturity in about three months after 
sowing, and is extensively raised in Europe, Asia and North 
America, in the northern part of the temperate zone. It fur- 
nishes good food for man and heast, and is sometimes used in 
making beer and gin. 

[ Starch, 52. to 68.0 

I Gluten, etc., 10.0 

In 100 parts of buckwheat there are, of<{ Gum, sugar, 6.0 

I Water, 13.0 

[ Ash, etc., 3.0 

Buckwheat is often sown, and after it is partly grown, 
plougljed under, as a fertilizer for some other crop. 

The Potato. — The potato is a member of -potato family , 
and a native of the mountainous regions of tropical America; 
yet it will grow in almo'it any climate or soil. It does best in 
light sandy soil, which contains a little lime, and some vege- 
table mould, temperature from 45° to 60° with a inoderate 
rain-fall, but no heavy storms. In 1S70 the United States 
produced 143,500,000 bushels of potatoes. 

f Water, y6.o 

I wStarch, 15.0 

In 100 parts of potato there are, of<( Gluten, etc., 2.0 

Gum and sugar, 3.0 
Ash and fibre, 4.0 

It is extensively used as food for man and domestic animals, 
although it is not very nutritious; one pound of wheat con- 
taining nearly six times as much nutriment, as one pound of 
potatoes. 



— 86 — 

Tobacco. — Tobacco belongs to the potato family ^ and is a 
native of America. It is cultivated and used extensively in 
each of the grand divisions. It does best on a sandy loam, 
well fertilized with ashes, or guano; and in a temperature of 
about 60°, with light showers. From 19 to 27 per cent, of 
the tobacco leaf is ash, composed mainly of potassa, lime, and 
silica. One ton of tobacco takes from the soil, as much ma- 
terial as, ten tons of wheat, oats, or corn. It is an important 
article of commerce, the yearly export from the United States 
sometimes amounting to $30,000,000. 

Cotton. — Cotton belongs to the mallow Jamily^ and is a 
native of both continents, between the isotherms of 60° north 
and south. There are many varieties, probably arising from 
diflferences in climate, soil, and cultivation. The sea island cot- 
ton is a shrubby plant, from four to six feet high, and is the 
variety which furnishes the best cotton fibre; the green-seed, 
or upland cotton, which attains a bight of ten or fifteej|i feet, 
and another variety, still larger, a native of China, are all cul- 
tivated extensively in America and Asia. The soil should be 
coinposed largely of sand, (about 90 per cent.) with some 
clay, lime, iron, potassa, etc. It needs hot sunshine, inoist air 
and heavy dews. Tne seed is usually planted in March, the 
plant blooins in June, and the cotton is ready for picking in 
August or September. The United States produces more 
cotton than any other coinitry ; the product of 1870 was about 
3,000,000 bales, weighing about 400 poucds each. 

Flax. — -Flax is perhaps of more importance .than cotton. 
From the earliest history of man, its fibre has furnished ma- 
terials for clothing, and from its seeds a very useful oil, called 
linseed oil, is obtained. It is a native of Southern Asia, but 
it has a wide range of climate, thriving well betv/een the iso- 
therms of 72° and 38° North Latitude. It is extensively cul- 
tivated in Europe, and to some extent in Asia and America. 
It needs a rich soil and careful cultivation. ' 



Hemp. — Hemp is also cultivated for its fibre, which is not 
quite so fine as that of flax. It has the same nativity and wide 
. range of climate that flax has, and is cultivated extensively in 
Eux-ope and America. 

The different grains vary in quality with the character of the soil, 
climate, and mode of cultivation. The composition vai-ies as the qual- 
ity, but the figures given show the average proportion in which the dif- 
lerent ingredients occur. 

Other Vegetable Products. — Peas, beans, hops, 
grapes, the mulberry, for the food of the silk worm, sweet 
potato, yam, banana, bread-fruit, date-palm, etc., are important 
vegetable productions. 

The tea plant, a native of Asia,coflee, native to Arabia and 
Abyssinia, pepper, nutmegs, cloves, cinnamon, and other spices, 
natives of Asia and the adjacent islands, are all useful produc- 
tions. There is also a large number of useful oils which are 
the products of plants; as, olive oil, castor oil, linseed oil, etc.; 
also the useful gums, and resins; as, tragacanth, gum acacia, 
myrrh, India copal. India-rubber, gutta-percha, etc., are veget- 
able products; and many plants yield valuable medicines, as, the 
poppy, cinchona tree, rhubarb, mandrake, etc. 

Market Garden Products. — Maiket garden products, as 
lettuce, radish, asparagus, pie-plant, cucumbers, various kinds of 
berries, celery, etc., are important productions. They will not 
bear long transportation, and are raised most extensively near 
large cities. Over twenty million dollars worth of these pro- 
ducts were raised in the United States in 1S70. They all need a 
w^ell cultivated, loamy soil, and a tempei'ature of from 45° to 
65°. 

Orchard Products. — Orchard products, including the 
apple, pear, and peach, are of considerable importance. 

The apple is supposed to have been obtained by a careful 
cultivation of the wild crab, a native of Central Europe. It does 
best in the cooler parts of the temperate zone, on a stiff, well 



drained, clay soil, which is well supplied with lime. The best 
qualities are tound between isotherms 55°and 45°, but veiy good 
qualities are found between 40° and 70°, 

Th6 ■pear is also a native of Europe, and requires the same 
soil and climate as the apple, but it will not do well in so wide 
a range of climate. 

The Peach is a native of Central Asia. It requires a light 
sandy soil, with a temperature of from 45° to 55°, modified by 
the presence of large bodies of water. Plums, and Cherries 
also are classed as orchard products. They all belong to the 
rosefamily. 

In 1870 the United States produced nearly fifty million dol- 
lars worth of fruit. 

Forest Products. — The forest furnishes materials which 
man is able to make useful in many ways. The most useful trees 
are, the pine, larch, cedar, ash, maple, oak, elm, teak, cam- 
phor tree, eucalipti, bamboo, mahogany, rose-wood, logwood, 
etc. 

The forest products of the United States for 1870 were valued 
at about $140,000,000, 

Distribution of Cultivated Plants, Etc., in the 
ZoxES. — In the southern part of the cold temperate zone, 
barley, buckwheat, rye, flax, potatoes, turnips, etc., will grow 
on good soils, and forests of good pine also occur. 

In the northera half of the temperate zone, hay, barley, 
oats, rye, and potatoes grov/ in great quantities, and of excel- 
lent quality. Wheat does best in the central part of the zone, 
but grows in all parts, while corn does best m the southern 
two-thirds. In this zone orchard and market garden products 
are abundant; also, forests of useful deciduous trees, with a 
belt of valuable pine forests in the north. The inore import- 
ant and useful animals are also found most abundantly in this 
zone. ,• 



--89- 

Tobacco thrives best along the border between the temper- 
ate and warm temperate zones; and in the warm temperate 
zone, we find cotton, rice, and sugar-cane cultivated exten- 
sively, with corn, s\veet potatoes and many tropical fruits, 
and in the forests are found valuable trees; as, the pitch-pine, 
live-oak, cork-oak, ete. 

In the torrid zone, coifee, date-palm, bread-fruit, yam, in- 
digo, cinnamon, pepper and other spices are the principal 
cultivated plants; in the forests are found many valuable trees. 



MINING, 



Mining x'A the process of taking useful rocks and metals ixoxa 
the ground. 

ROCKS. 

The rocks are found in beds or layers, which are, as a rule, 
nearly horizontal, and often of great thickness. The most im- 
portant rocks are coal, granite, sandstone, slate, limestone, 
marble, and salt. 

Coal. — The formation of coal has been explained. (Page 28.) 
Coal is used for fuel, and is valuable in proportion to the 
amount of carbon and hydrogen it contains. Anthracite or 
stone coal is of a bright black color, has an irregular, curved 
fracture, is free from dust, and burns without flame or smoke. 

T , 4. r 4.1 •- 1 ( Carbon, 90.0 

in 100 parts ot anthracite coal 1 tt i -^ 

there are of 1 Hydrogen, 2.4 

' C Oxyg^^) ssh, etc., .7.6 



Anthracite coal is found in England and other parts of Eu- 
rope, but in the gi'eatest quantity in the United States. 

JBituminotts coal has a dull black color, a plane fracture, 
burns with flame and smoke, and is very dusty. 

T j^ c i_-i. • ( Carbon, 6^. to 80.0 

In 100 parts of bitummous i tj j u .- - 

■i ^-i ^ c -s Hydrogen, o. to K.o 

coal there are, of )r\\^^4 

' ( Oxygen, ash, etc. 37. to 15.0 

This is the average composition of numerous varieties. 
Coal is found abundantly in South-Eastern Asia, in Europe and 
North America, and to some extent in the southern grand di- 
visions. The most extensive deposits are found in North 
America. In 1S70 England mined 117,000,000 tons of coal, 
and the United States mined about 50,000,000 tons. 

Granite. — Granite is composed of quartz, feldspar, and 
mica, in varying proportions. Those varieties containing a 
large proportion of quartz and feldspar, are excellent material 
for building purposes. It is a hard i^ock, and the difficulty- of 
working it makes it very expensive, but this is counterbal- 
anced by its great durability. Good qualities are found in 
Egpyt, Europe, and in the United States; Maine and Massa- 
chusetts furnishing the best. 

Sandstone. — Sandstone consists of grains of sand of va- 
rious sizes, cemented together into rock. The sand is mainly 
pulverized quartz, from the old granite i"ocks. If the cement 
is good, the rock is very hard and valuable as a building 
stone; some varieties are worthless, as the grains are not well 
cemented together. Sandstone varies in color from white to a 
dark brown, ownig to the presence of inore or less iron in the 
cement. Sandstone is used extensively in building, and some 
varieties are used for ornamental work. Good qualities are 
found on each continent. The best qualities in this country are 
found in Ohio and New Jersey. 

Slate Rock. — Slate is mainly composed of feldspar, from 
the old granite rocks, which has been pulverized, and subjected 



to great heat and pressure. It is used as material tor drawing 
slates, and for roofing. For roofing, it should be pure, should 
split easily into plates, should not absorb water, and should 
admit of being pierced for nailing. Good qualities are found 
in Europe and in America. 

Limestone. — Limestone, composed of lime and carbonic 
acid, is carbonate of lime. It has an irregular fracture, is 
easily cut with a knife, effervesces with an acid, and the fossil 
shells, etc., of which it is so largely composed, may often be 
seen in it. Limestone is found in each of the grand divisions. 
Some vai"ieties make fine building stone. Joliet, 111., Lock- 
port, N.Y., and Montreal, Canada, furnish the best varieties 
in this country. Limestone, burned to drive off the carbonic 
acid, is the common lime used so largely as an ingredient of 
mortar and plaster; it is also used as a fertilizer, and as a dis- 
infectant. 

Marble. — Marble has the same composition as limestone 
but is more compact and uniform in texture. It is used for 
building, for statuary, and other ornamental work. The finest 
qualities are found in Italy, Greece, and their adjacent islands, 
Vermont furnishes a very fine quality. 

Salt. — Salt is composed of sodium 60.7, and chlorine 39.3 
parts. It is chloride of sodium. It is largely used as an ar- 
ticle of food for man and animals, also for the pi'eservation of 
meats, etc. It is found in every grand division, and is ob- 
tained from mines as a rock, and from sea-water, or the water 
of saline springs, by evaporation. The most extensive deposit 
known is in Poland, where there is a mine nearly 1800 feet 
deep, with an extent of 9,600 feet, (nearly two miles,) from 
east to west, and of 3600 feet from north to south. 



-92 



METALS. 



Metals are found mainly in veins or cracks in the rocks, 
which are seldom more than a few feet in widch, and as a 
rule, nearly vertical. The most important metals are, iron, 
copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, tin, and mercury. The metal 
IS sometimes ^/./re in the veins, when it is called native; as, 
native copper, or gold; sometimes two metals are combined, 
forming an alloy/ but more frequently the metal is combined 
with some other substances, forming an ore/ as, iron combined 
with oxygen forms oxide of iron, or in diflerent proportions, 
forming magnetic iron ore; or lead combined with sulphur, 
forming the sulphide of lead ore, etc. 

Iron. — Iron is always found as an ore. There are numer- 
ous ores of iron, but only a few are of much importance. 

Magnetic irojt ore. — From this ore is made the best quality 
of h'on. It occurs In eight-sided, iron-black crystals, composed 
of iron 73 parts, and oxygen 27 parts. Large quantities of 
this ore are found in Sweden, in the Ural Mountains, in 
the region of Lake Supei'ior, and in lesser quantities in many 
other localities. 

Hematite iron ore. — This is one of the most abundant ores 
of iron, varying somewhat in composition and appearance. It 
is composed of from 60 to 70 parts iron and from 40 to 50 
parts oxygen and other substances. It is the most abundant 
iror. ore of the United States and Europe. 

Carbonate of iron., or clay iron ore. — This is the most im- 
portant ore of iron found in England, where it occurs along 
with the coal. It consists of carbonate of iron mixed with 
clay and other substances, containing about 36 parts of iron, 
carbonic acid 24 parts, other substances 40 parts. 



— 9.^~ 

Sulphide of iron. — Sulphide of iron, or iron pyrites, is a 
brittle, brassy yellow substance, often found in coal, sometimes 
in the form of cubical crystals. From it is made the sulphate 
of iron or green vitriol, sulphuric acid, etc., but it does not 
furnish a good quality of iron. Iron is perhaps the most useful 
metal, and has been used by man since his earliest history. 

In 1870 the United States produced about $13,000,000 worth 
of iron. 

Copper. — Copper is found in nature as an ore, an alloy, and 
as native copper. It is a tough, heavy metal, which is found 
widely distributed in nature, and has been used by man since the 
earliest time. Large quantities of native copper, and of copper 
alloyed with silver, are found near Lake Superior. Copper in 
some form, is found abundantly in each grand divisdn. 

In 1870 the United States produced $5,000,000 worth of 
copper. 

Gold. — Gold is found mostly as native gold, or as an alloy, 
but sometimes it is so intimately mixed with other substances, 
that it is virtually an ore. Gold occurs in veins, or in the al- 
luvial sands formed by the breaking down of the vein rock. 
Taking gold from the veins is called /o^/e mining; taking it 
from the sands is called placer mining. Gold is found in each 
of the grand divisions, but most abundantly in the western 
part of North America, the eastern part of Europe, and in 
the south-eastern part of Australia. 

In 1867 the United States produced about $60,000,000 o f 
gold; in 1870 only about $23,000,000. 

Silver. — Silver occurs in nature as an ore, an alloy, and as 
native silver. The most abundant ores of silver are, the 
sulphide of silver., silver combined with" sulphur, and chloride 
of silver., silver combined with chlorine. Silver is found most 
abundantly in Mexico, Peru, Spain, Austria, and to some ex- 
extent in Africa and Asia. The annual yield of Mexico is 
about $2.0,000,000. In 1S70 the United States produced about 



— 94 — 

$4,000,000 of silver. Gold and silver are both highly prized 
for their beauty and durability, and have been used by man 
since the earliest record. 

Lead. — Lead occurs as an ore, for the most part as the sul- 
phide of lead, called galena, composed of lead S6 parts, and 
sulphur 14 parts. This ore usually has the form of leaden - 
grey, cubical crystals. It is found extensively in North Amer- 
ica and Europe, and in limited quantities, in the other grand 
divisions. 

Zinc. — Zinc is always toimd as an ore, most abundantly 
either as the carbonate of zinc, or as the sulphide of zinc. 
Zinc is a hard, bluish-white metal, extensively used in medi- 
cine and in the arts. Zinc alloyed with copper. Is an ingre- 
dient of German silver, and one part of zinc with two parts 
of copper forms brass. It is also an ingredient of other use- 
ful alloys. 

The sulphides of zinc, lead, copper, ii-on, and silver, along 
with gold and other substances, are often found together in the 
same ore. 

Tin. — Tin usually occurs as an oxide of tin. It is a mal- 
leable, silver-white metal, somewhat crystalline In texture. It 
is not much affected by the action of the atmosphere, and is 
lai-gely used as a preservative coating for iron; It is also an 
ingredient of many useful alloys; as, pewter, solder, bronze, 
and bell-metal. Tin Is found most abundantly in England, 
Spain, Saxony, and Austria, countries of Europe, but is little 
found in the other grand divisions. 

Mercury. — The greater portion of the mercury of com- 
merce Is obtained from cinnabar, the sulphide of mercury. It 
is found in Spain, Austria, and California, in great quan- 
tities. Mercury is used extensively in separating gold and sil- 
ver from other substances, and In making thermometers, bar- 
ometers, etc., as silvering for mirrors, and in medicine. 



— 95 — 

Reduction of Ores. — The pure metal is obtained from 
the ore mainly through the action of heat. Sometimes not 
only great heat is necessary to free the metal from impurities, 
but chemical agents must be used, as in the case of iron. But 
lead, or mercury are freed from their ores by a comparatively 
slight degree of heat. 



MAJSrUFACTURIKG. 



Manufacturing is the preparing of agricultural, mineral 
and other products for the use of man. 

There are many hundreds of manufactures carried on by 
man. The value of the annual products of diflerent manu- 
factures vary from a few dollars to many millions. 

Some of the operations employ the labor of but one person 
with simple tools, others employ machinerv driven by animal, 
wind, water, or steam-power, often giving employment to 
thousands of persons. The most important manufactures 
are those by means of which materials for the food, clothing, 
and shelter of man are prepared. 

The wheat, barley, rye, corn, etc. must be ground into 
flour or meal. This was formerly done by hand, in a rude 
way, between stones or in a mortar; now, machinery driven 
by steam, water, or other power does it better, more rapidly, 
and cheaper. 

In 1870 the value of the product of this industry in the 
United States was about $500,000,000. 

The wool, cotton, hemp, and flax must be cleaned, spun, and 
woven info cloth. The use of improved machinery has re- 
duced the cost of weaving 60 per cent, withm sixty years. 



-96- 

The product of the cotton and woolen manufactures of the 
United States in 1870 was vakied at more than $375,000,000. 
England manufactui-es nearly one-half ot the cotton and 
woolen goods of the world, employing more than 500,000 
persons in this industry. From the skins of animals the various 
kinds of leather are prepared. Making useful articles from 
leather and the different kinds of cloth are important and ex- 
tensive industries. 

Iron Ore must be melted, cast, remelted and cast, rolled 
or hammered into useful articles; as, agricultural implements, 
the various kinds ot machinery, tools, etc. 

England takes the lead in the manufacture of iron. Krupp's 
iron works at Essen, in Prussia, however are the most exten- 
sive in the world. The iron manufactured in the United States 
in 1870 was valued at about $400,000,000. 

Building material; as, timber, lumber, etc., manufactnred 
from forest products in the United States in 1870, was valued 
at more than $250,000,000. Also, large quantities of rock 
were dressed, and many millions of brick were made for 
building purposes. 

There are many other extensive and interesting manufac- 
tures, but the abvoe are the most important. Manufacturing 
adds much to the value of the raw material. In the United 
States in 1S70, forest products in the rough w^ere valued at 
about $37,000,000; when manufactured the value was $250,- 
000,000. For the same year the iron product was valued at 
$13,000,000; while the value of manufactured iron was $500,- 
000,000. 

A quantity of iron ore sufficient to make a ton of iron, in 
the mine, would be worth only $3 or $4; but taken from the 
mine and manufactured into //»" ij'on^ it is worth $25; made 
into bar Iron, it is worth $65; made into steel., it is worth 
$300; made into watch springs., it is worth more than its 
weight of gold. 



- 97 - 
COMMERCE. 



Commerce is the exchange of the products of one localit}' 
for those of another. Products sent from a place are exports^ 
those brought into a place are imports. 

Domestic commerce is that carried on beiween different 
parts of the same country; as, South Carolina exports I'ice and 
cotton to New England, and New England exports manufac- 
tured goods to South Carolina. 

Foreign commerce is that carried on between different coun- 
tries; as, the United States export wheat, corn, and cotton to 
England, and England exports iron and manufactured goods 
to the United States. 

Sometimes a product is imported from one country, and then 
exported to another country; as, the United States import 
coffee from Brazil, and ^export the same coffee to Belgium, 
Germany, Mexico, etc. 

Transportation.— Tlie carrying of persons or produce 
from one place to another is called transportation. Nearly all 
the transportation of foreign commerce, and mnch of that of 
domestic commerce, is carried on by means of boats on the 
oceans, lakes, rives, and canals. Canals are artificial channels 
cut in the land and tilled with water. The Erie canal is the 
most important canal in the United States; it connects the wa- 
tess of the Niagara and Hudson rivers. There ate numerous 
important canals in Europe. 

There are more than 100,000 steam and sailing vessels en- 
gaged in the commerce of the world, besides many thousands 
of smaller boats; those on canals are moved by horse-power, 
sojne on rivers, by man power. 

Some of the transportation of domestic commerce is carried 
on by means' of domestic animals, but the main part is done 
by steam-power on railways. 



The first railway was built of wooden rails, in about 1620, 
for the transportation, of coal; the wooden rails were soon 
protected by strips of iron, then cast-iron rails were used, and 
finally, the rolled iron and steel rails used at the present time. 
Domestic animals were used as motive power on railways till 
1804, when the first locomotive-engine was used. Since 1830 
steam has been almost the only power used on railways. 

Railways and locomotive engines were first made and used 
in England, but now the United Stales has as many miles of 
railway as all the rest of the world, and much better cars and 
engines than any other country. 

In 1837 the United States had 3 miles of railway, in 1875 
the United States have about 73,000 miles of railway in opera- 
tion; England, France, Germany, Russia, etc., together, have 
about the same. 

In the United States, the average cost of railways, equipped 
for business, is about $55,000 pt- r mile. The net profit of 
railways in the United States is ahout 5 per cent., a little more 
than in England. More than 35 per cent, of this profit is de- 
rived from the transportation of persons. Transportation by 
railway is more rapid than transportation by water, but not 
as cheap. 

The conditions favorable to the growth of manufacturing 
countries are, an abundance of raw material, with but small 
cost for transportation, an abundance of cheap power and la- 
bor, with cheap and rapid transportation to the countries de- 
manding the manufactux'ed products. 

The conditions favorable to the growth of commercial 
countries are, a surplus of natural or manufactured products, 
a demand for the products of other countries, and cheap 
transportation to other counti"ies; or facilities for cheap and 
rapid transjjortation between countries which need each other's 
surplus products. 

England, France, the United States, Germany, ete. are the 
principal manufacturing and commercial nations. 



GOVERj^MENT. 



Man has a right to life, liberty, and the products of his 
industry. To protect these rights, and to promote the general 
welfare of mankind, governments became necessary. 

Every government exercises three distinct functions: 

1. The Legislative, or law-making function. 

2. The Judicial, or law-applying function. 

3. The Executive, or law-enforcing function. 

A Nation. — The people sustaining and obeying a particu- 
lar government constitute a state or natio7t. 

There are diflerent forms of government, depending on the 
character and intelligence of the people governed. The prin- 
cipal are, — the Republican, the Limited Monarchy, and the 
Absolute Monarchy. 

Republicax Government. — In a republican forrn of 
government, the different functions are exercised by different 
bodies of men, the members of each chosen more or less 
directly by the people for a limited time. 

The laws are made by a Congress^ which consists of two 
houses, an u-pfer and a lower \ the upper house composed of 
a few members, chosen for a long te'-"ra ; the lower house, 
composed of a larger number of members, chosen for a shorter 
term. The laws are applied to particular cases by the ytidges 
of the different courts, from the petty district court, to the su- 
preme court of the nation. The laws are enforced by the 
President and his assistants. All the aflairs of the govern- 
ment are cari'ied on in accordance with a written compact or 
constitution, as interpreted by the judges of the supreme court. 

The United States in North America, several nations in 
South America, aad Switzerland in Europe, are republics. 



Each state of the United States has a republican form ot 
government, and in some instances, each county in the state, 
and each town m a county have the same form. 

Limited Monarchy. — Tn a limited monarchy, the Mon- 
arch or Executive holds his position for life, by virtue of his 
birth. The power of the monarch is limited by the courts, 
and by a legislative body, whose members are sometimes cho- 
sen by the people, but usually only a portion are chosen by 
the people, while the others are ajDpointeq by the monarch for 
life, or hold their positions by virtue of their birth. Limited 
monarchies are based on a constitution and fixed laws. 

Great Britain and Germany are the most powerful and im- 
portant limited monarchies. Practically there is no great dif- 
ference between a limited monarch}'^ and a republican form of 
government. 

Absolute Monarchy. — In an absolute monarchy the 
monarch holds his position for life, by virtue ot his birth. 
The monarch not only executes the laws, but makes and ap- 
plies them as vi^ell. Great numbers of persons aid the mon- 
arch in the exercise of the different functions, but he fs su- 
preme in each. Practically the will of the monarch is much 
limited by the w^ill and intelligence of the people. 

Russia and Turkey are the most powei-ful and liberal of the 
absolute monarchies. 

In the absolute monarchies of Northern Africa and of Asia 
the monarch has almost absolute povi^er over the life, liberty, 
and property of his subjects. These governments are often 
called despotisms. 

The nations having the above forms of government include 
all the Indo-European Race and a portion of the Mongolian 
Race; the American, African and Malayian Races, are broken 
up into small tribes, with unstable governments of a monarch- 
ial form, which but poorly protect the rights of the people. 



DIVISIONS OF MANKIND ON THE BASIS 
OF CULTURE. 



On the basis of culture, (degree of intelligence, forms of 
government and religion, manner of living, etc.) mankind is 
divided into four classes; the Savage, Barbarous, Half-Civil- 
ized, and Civilized. 

The Savage. — This class of mankind has a low" degree of 
intelligence, speaks, but does not w^rife the monosyllabic or 
agglutinative languages, and accepts the lowest forms of re- 
ligion. The character of their food, clothing, and shelter de- 
pends on the climate in ^vhich they live. In the torrid zone, 
their food consists mainly of spontaneous vegetable products, 
and the bark and leaves of plants furnish materials for cloth- 
ing and shelter. In the temperate zones, animals and fish are 
extensively used for food, and the skins of the animals furnish 
materials for clothing and shelter. Ill the frigid zone, they 
are dependent on animals, mainly, for food, clothing, and shelter," 
sometimes making houses of ice. The principal industries are 
hunting and fishing, sometimes a little agriculture by the wo- 
men, who are treated as slaves. They have, in some cases, a few 
domestic animals; as, the horse, dog, reindeer, etc.; in general 
there is no division ol labor, and but small accumulations of 
property. They have no knowledge of the metals, using Im- 
plements of stone; they place a low estimate on the value of 
human life, and their governments are based on the principle 
that " might makes right." 

This class Includes the greater portion of the Malayian, 
African, and x^merican Races, and that portion of the Mon- 
golian Race living In the northern parts of America, Europe, 
and Asia. 



— I02 

The Barbarous. — This class has a higher degree of in- 
telligence than the Savage, using a better form of the same 
languages, making use of picture writing, etc. for purposes of 
history, and in some cases using phonetic characters. They 
live in cities, and understand the use of fire m working met- 
als, carry agriculture, manufacturing, and architecture to a 
high degree of perfection. There are large accumulations of 
property, more or less division of labor, with such lorms of 
religion as those of Egypt, of Brahmanism, and ofBuddliism; 
governments despotic; learning mostly confined to the priests ; 
slavery, caste., polygamy, etc. allowed. In this class are in- 
cluded such nations as the Ancient Assyrians, Egyptians, 
and Aryans; the Aztecs and Peruvians of America, and some 
nations in Africa and South-Western Asia. 

Half-Civilized. — This class is a little in advance of the 
Barbarous, having more liberal forms of government, and 
higher forms of religion; as, those of Judaism and Zoroaster. 
Alphabets, and in some instances inflectional languages are 
used; learning is more widelv disseminated among the com- 
mon people, and there is a better knowledge of the useful 
metals than among the Barbarous class. The Ancient Jews 
and PhcEnicians, the Chinese and Japanese are examples of 
this class. ^ 

Civilized. — In civilized nations the inflectional languages 
are spoken and written; steel tools are in common use among 
the people, and all the industries, arts, and sciences are carried 
to a high degree of perfection. Universities, colleges, and 
common schools are supported by governments or individuals 
for the purpose of educating the masses of the people. Chris- 
tianity, the highest form of religion; Republics and Limited 
Monarchies, the highest forms of government, prevail. Mo- 
nogomy is legalized, and woman holds a high position. 

Civilization has developed in successive steps, arising in 
Greece where a high degree of culture in art and literature 
was attained. Rome carried Christianity into all parts of Eu- 
rope, and her code oi laws is the basis of all modern law. 



— 103 — 

In about 1450 A,D. the art of printing gave a new impetus 
to civilization, and transferred the leadership in progress from 
the Latin and Greek nations to the German in Central Eu- 
rope. 

The successful application of steam power to machinery in 
about 1770 marks another step in the progress of civilization. 

The European branches of the Aryan family include all 
the civilized nations. 

Asia is called the cradle of the human family, but Europe 
is the cradle of civilization. The descendants of Europeans in 
America now rival the mother countries in their contributions 
to the progress of mankind. 

In connection with this work the following books can be 
used with profit: 

" History of Culture," by Hittell. 

" Ten Great Religions," by James F. Clark. 

" Brace on the Races." 

" Chambers' Encycloped'a." 

" Guyot's Physical Geography. 



LESSONS 



GEOGRAPHY, 



J. T. SCOVELL 



HE75 85 



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